Essorant
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posted
2005-11-26
10:39 AM
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Young English
Young English was that written and spoken in Great Britain before the twelfth century. It was the most phonological and inflective stage of the English language.
The two most important points about learning Young English are becoming most familiar with 1. Letters and Sounds: and 2. The Inflections.
Terminology "Young" and "Old"
In this work I say Young English for the conventional "Old English" And Old English for the conventional "Modern English"
This is not meant to confuse readers, even though it may be a bit confusing at first. But it is meant to observe the truth that English before the twelfth century was in its youth and early years, taking its first fresh steps in history. And that the english language today, come down from a long life and evolution, over a thousand years, makes it accuratly old.
Indeed English today is like an old man. The facts we have from earlier english are like pictures of that old man when he was younger. Just as an old man should be called young
in a picture in which he was young, even though he is presently old, I believe the English language should be called young in the "picture" and context in which it was young in comparison to such a long evolution thereafter, by which we may acknowledge how old the english language presently really is.
Part One
Letters and Sounds
Front Vowels i, y, e, æ* Back Vowels u, o, a
(short, long)
i: did, deed
y: Fr.* tu, Fr. lune u: put, moon
e: get, play o: not, bone
æ: cat, bad a: hot, law
Vowel-Pairs: "Dipthongs" (Gr. di "two" + phthongos "sound")
ea ` Dipthongs may be pronounced as the
eo > vowels suggests. But always
io / as one syllable, not two.
ie
* ligurature æ is called "ash".
*Y was only a vowel in YE (Young English).
*Fr. = French
*Y is somewhat like i and u as one vowel sound. A high, front and rounded vowel.
Consonants
The letters not listed below are all used as in Old English (OE).
c: As ch in cheap by front vowels f: As v in seven between vowels.
As k in keep by back vowels As f in five initially or finally.
g: As y in yelp by front vowels h: As h in horse intially.
As g in good by back vowels As ch in loch medially or finally.
r: "OE r initially may well have been strongly trilled
as in Mod.Scots, but the same symbol was used for
the fricative ('burred') sound in some positions,
notably before consonants and finally (heard 'hard',
scur 'shower') - the r-sound of much American speech
and heard also in southwestern dialects of England."
- Quirk and Wrenn's An Old English Grammar
s: As z in zoo between vowels.
As s in sing initially or finally. Þ*: As th of father between vowels.
As th of thick initially or finally ð: The same as Þ.
Consonant-Pairs
sc: As sh of ship. cg: As dge of edge. cc: As ch in child.
* Sometimes when by a front vowel letters g or c are still g (as in god) and k ( as in kite). This is because a back vowel was originally there, but by sound change became front. The vowel changed, but the consonants stayed the same. Thus g in gylden is the same as g in golden, c in cyning is as k in king, cearo is as c in care. Forms in old english may help direct our pronunciation.
* Runic Þ "thorn," and ð "eth" -- a d with a line thro it-- are interchangeably used for the sound spelt in YE as th. The uppercases are þ and Ð.
* j and v are not found in Young English; and k, q, and z are found only rarely.
* There are no silent letters.
Try pronouncing the words in the following groups.
Long vowels are underlined, and short vowels are left unmarked.
ac oak feoh fee lif Life
aþ oath fisc fish Lufu Love
beadu battle fæt vat middæg midday
bodig body gimm gem miht might
cild child heafod head niht night
cniht knight hit it nosþyrl nostril
cwen queen hlæfdige lady ofer over
cyning king hlaford lord oðer other
dæg day hund hound run rune
dæl deal ic I Sæfern Severn
eorl earl lar lore treow tree
engel angel leoht light tunge tongue
æ law gar spear meotod creator
æþling prince garsecg sea mere sea
ar honour hals neck ræd advice
bearn child hælend Savior rod cross
boda messenger here army scop poet
bot remedy hige mind tungol star
drihten lord læce doctor þeaw virtue
ea river leode people þegn thane
ege terror leoð poetry þeow slave
ellen courage lyft air wen expectation
feorh life mæg kinsman wer man
frea lord mægen might wyrd fate
eoh horse maþm treasure wynn joy
guma man med reward yð wave
Line of Descent
Indo-European_____________________________
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| Italic Celtic etc.
Germanic__________________
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| East Germanic
Northwest Germanic________
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| North Germanic
West Germanic_________________
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| Irminonic Istvaeonic
Ingvaeonic___________
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| Low German
Anglo-Frisian________
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| Young Frisian
Young English
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Middle English
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Old English
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© Copyright
2005
Essorant
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Essorant
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Posts 4769
Regina, Saskatchewan; Canada
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1
posted
2005-11-26
10:42 AM
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Part Two
The Inflections
A. Nouns
There are four main cases in YE:
Nominative: subject and activity. (The Queen...)
Accusative: object and passivity. (kissed the King.)
Genitive: possessive. (The King's Queen...)
Dative: indirect object. (gave kisses to the King)
And three genders: masculine, neuter, and feminine.
For all of these there are special inflections or word-endings given to words to indicate them. Thus, hund (hound) and hundes (hound's), hundas (hounds), etc
Se "the" and þes "this"
When Se "the" or þes "this" accompanies a noun it also shall change its shape accordingly:
1. To the gender that is the same as that of the noun.
2. To the case that is the same as the noun.
3. To the number (singular or plural) that is the same as the noun.
Thus by the condition of a noun being:
masculine + nominative + singular = Se "the" or þes "this"
But:
neuter + nominative + singular = þæt "the" or þis "this"
(þæt whence "that" comes is simply a variant of "the")
"Forty-five per cent of all the nouns that the student will learn from his reading will be masculine, nearly four-fifths of these will have gen.sg [genitive singular] in -es and nom.acc.pl. [nominative and accusative plural] in -as, about one fifth will have both gen.sg. and nom.acc.pl in -an, and there will be a few very common nouns of irregular pattern.
Some thirty per cent of the nouns he meets will be feminine, five-sixths of these will have gen.sg. in -e and nom.acc.pl. in -a or -e, less than one-sixth will have both gen.sg. and nom.acc. pl. in -an, again, he will find a small balance of irregulars.
Finally, twenty-five per cent of the nouns will be neuter, almost all having gen.sg. in -es and nom.acc.pl. in -u or without ending."
- Quirk and Wrenn's An Old English Grammar
The most important inflections are:
Singular
Masculine Neuter Feminine
Inflexion Inflexion Inflexion
N. Se/þes - þæt/þis - Seo/þeos - or u
A. þone/þisne - þæt/þis - þa/þas e
G. þæs/þisses es þæs/þisses es þære/þisse e
D. þæm/þissum e þæm/þissum e þære/þisse e
Plural
N. þa/þas as þa/þas - or u þa/þas a
A. þa/þas as þa/þas - or u þa/þas a
G. þara/þissa a þara/þissa a þara/þissa a
D. þæm/þissum um þæm/þissum um þæm/þissum um
So by the "inflexion" list above, we may "translate" the words into the cases and their inflexions (word-endings) thus:
Nominative: subject and activity. (Seo Cwen "The Queen"...)
Accusative: object and passivity. (kissed þone cyning "the King")
Genitive: possessive. (þæs cyninges "the king's" Queen...)
Dative: indirect object. (gave kisses to þæm cyninge"The King")
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Essorant
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2
posted
2005-11-26
10:44 AM
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In an Young English Dictionary
Here is part for Cwen as it is shown in an Young English/Anglo-Saxon dictionary: The Bosworth-Toller's Anglo Saxon Dictionary
*the main noun heading is always the nominative, as cwen.
*The f. below cwen lets us know it follows the feminine inflexions.
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Essorant
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3
posted
2005-11-26
10:46 AM
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Leof Cyningas and Cwena,
Please feel free to ask questions, make additions, or amend anything;
I hope this may be an interactive grammar. You may be as loud as you wish in this "classroom" 
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Essorant
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Regina, Saskatchewan; Canada
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4
posted
2005-11-26
10:48 AM
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(These responses are carried over from earlier edition of this thread.)
Not A Poet said:
Really nice work here, Ess. But I'm afraid I have enough trouble with plain old modern American English. Of course, some might call it Okie 
Soleil Noir said:
Ess, I would love for you to come and give me lessons in person. I'm more of a see and say student - hands on and all that. I can read, of course, but I need to hear as well.
This is a very informative thread, however, and you may find me in here asking questions. Also, please check your e-mail!
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Essorant
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5
posted
2005-11-26
10:53 AM
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Pete,
Perhaps you may overcome those problems in learning Young English.
Soleil Noir,
Thanks
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Essorant
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6
posted
2005-11-26
10:55 AM
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C
Soft Ċ "ch" Hard C "k"
ælċ each ilca same
hwilċ which coss m. kiss
swilċ such seoloc m. silk
liċ n. body cumbol n. banner
geliċ like beacen n. beacon
heafonliċ heavenly facn n. crime
miċel great tacn n. token
ċeorl m. churl cnosl n. race
ċild n. child camphad m. warfare
ċiriċe f. church wedlac n. wedlock
meċe m. sword witelac n. punishment
riċe n. kingdom boc f. book
læċe m. physician wocor f. increase
ċeaster f. city costung f. temptation
spræċ f. speech cwen f. woman
ċierm m. shouting wolcen n. cloud
ċierr m. turn wucu f. weak
drenċ m. drink clyne n. lump
stenċ m. stench ceol m. ship
geswinċ n. toil cwicu alive
aglæċa m. monster meolc f. milk
beċe f. beech folc n. people
ċealf n calf naca m. boat
reċed m. building seoc sick
ċeald cold deofolcund devilish
stræċ severe nacod naked
eċe eternal cu n. cow
swiċe deceitful weorc n. work
biċċe f. bitch cyning m. king
ċidere m. chider cneow n. knee
ċinn n. chin catt m. cat
ċeaf n. chaff cynn n. race
ċen m. torch cene keen
wiċċa m. sorcerer cnif m. knife
wiċċe f. sorceress ac f. oak
ynċe m. inch cræft m. skill
Some word Equations:
a "ever" + liċ "like" = ælċ "each"
hwa "who" + liċ "like" = hwilċ "which"
swa "so" + liċ "like" = swilċ "such"
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Essorant
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7
posted
2005-11-26
10:57 AM
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A Specification about G
In part one the two most contrastive sounds of g were noted: a hard g sound as in good and a soft ġ sound that is like OE y.
But another sound is represented by the graph g as well, that is less distinct from the hard "g" than the soft "y" sound.
I think it may be roughly described as:
*A weaker hard g sound with a w-like quality, found medially by back vowels ( u, o, a ) in a word.
Thus dragan to draw; dagung f. daying, dawn; dagian to dawn, to daw; dagas m. days;
lagu f. law; sagu f. I. saw (a saying) II. saw (the tool).
But it shall not be a major mistake to pronounce this consonant fully as a hard g.
In sum: 2 main qualities
G = 1. Hard G
-hard "g" (at start and before backvowel)
-hard w-like "g" (anywhere after backvowel)
and
2. Soft Ġ
-a soft "y" (anywhere by front vowel)
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Essorant
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8
posted
2005-11-26
10:58 AM
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G
Soft Ġ "y" Hard G "g"
ġiese yes gast m. spirit
ġea yea gat f. goat
ġe ye glof f. glove
ġefera m. companion god good
fæġer fair God m. God
weġ m. way guma m. man
enġel m. angel galdor n. incantation
æġ n. egg Engle m. The English
ġiefu f. gift Englisc English
forġiefnes f. forgiveness godcundnes f. Divinity
ġear n. year glæs n. glass
ġiedd n. song eage n. eye
reġn m. rain gar m. spear
ġeong young gaderung f. gathering
Þeġn m. thane gamen n. game
huniġ n. honey beag m. ring
ġiest m. guest beorg m. mountain
ġearu yare tunge f. tongue
tweġen twain gram angry
ġeweorc n. work gleomu f. splendour
eġe m. fear goldbeorht goldbright
sweġl n. sky duguð f. retainers
maniġ many boga m. bow
mæġð f. maiden feolaga m. fellow
wiġ n. war tungol n. star
ġimm m. gem glæd bright
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Essorant
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9
posted
2005-11-26
11:02 AM
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Serenity said:
could you possibly expound upon rules concerning meter and old english?
(thou hast opened a can of worms?)
particularly, I'm looking for rules of pronunciation in sometimes convenient apostrophe:
For example, the word: "beloved"
can be read as having two or three syllables.
My point is, though, that a writer can acheive a certain meter by the removal of the letter "e" replaced by an apostrophe:
"belov'd" - distinctly two syllables--as opposed to belovED, yes? certainly three...
Is there a rule for this?
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Essorant
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10
posted
2005-11-26
11:04 AM
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You need not worry about those things in Young English (formerly "Old English"). There are no apostrophes or "silent letters"
Iċ eom "I am" is always iċ eom, never iċ'm.
Iċ lufode "I loved" is always iċ lufode, never iċ luf'de.
It makes it a bit simpler, which I think is a good thing
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Essorant
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11
posted
2005-11-26
11:05 AM
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Not A Poet said:
As I understand it, the apostrophe was a tool from around the Shakespeare era. It was used like you said, to make a syllable sort of disappear for metric purposes. I don't know for sure but I suspect the language was changing at the time so that both pronunciations were acceptable. The apostrophe was a convention in poetry that directed the reader as to how the writer intended a word to be spoken. By reading some poetry from the era, one can pretty well deduce the intended purpose.
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Essorant
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12
posted
2005-11-26
11:06 AM
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Indeed; Dialects probably differed quite a bit back in Shakespeare's time, some with the -e- pronounced in ed, and some with the -e- not pronounced.
It is hard to be sure though where the dialects actually were and where it is simply a metrical device, or observance of antiquity in the poetry.
I wonder why there was no love <---> lov' alternation though. Perhaps that pronunciation was already fallen off before the apostrophe came into use.
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Essorant
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13
posted
2005-11-26
11:08 AM
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Here are some good points about meter and those apostrophewords in early Old English (formerly "Modern English").
"Some fudge-factors are especially prevalent in poetry of the 16th-17th centuries and later poetry that imitates it as a traditional archaism:
a. Words ending in -er or -en like ever, never, or heaven, given, are often treated as one syllable: "heav'n." In older texts they are sometimes spelled that way, too.
b. Up until the 20th century, very often poets would, as an archaism, expect the -ed verbal ending to be pronounced as a full syllable (as in the adjectives naked, learned, and winged today). When this was the practice, if the ending did not make a syllable (i.e., sounded as it does nowadays in words like "saved"), it would often be spelled with an apostrophe: sav'd, or even, if it had a t sound, with a t: "they past before me" or "they pass'd before me" for "they passed before me." Modern editions sometimes use the modern method: if the -ed is to take a syllable, the e has an accent over it: "the wingèd Victory." The reader must look carefully to see whether the text at hand follows the older procedure, where all -ed endings are full syllables, and the nonsyllabic ending is spelled -'d, or the more modern practice, where -ed usually does not sound as a syllable, and the syllabic ending is spelled -èd.
c. When two vowels are next to each other, they can often be scanned either as two syllables or one (offbeat) syllable, depending on what the poet needs for the meter. In words that have a u before another vowel, it may be treated like a w: unusual, "un-U-zhwal" (3 syllables) or "un-U-zhu-AL" (4 syllables). I may be treated as a y: proverbial: "pro-VERB-yal" or "pro-VERB-i-AL."
This effect may also occur between an unaccented vowel ending one word and another one beginning the next word. This fudge-factor effect is known as "elision" — the disappearing syllable is "elided" — and one of the commonest instances of it is in the vowel of the before the unstressed initial vowel of the noun modified by the article. Sometimes Renaissance poets actually wrote this elision as an apostrophe: "Th'expense." Donne sometimes signals it by an apostrophe following the first vowel (and thus between the two joined words), perhaps to suggest a vowel glide rather than the complete disappearance of the first of the two vowels. Another instance of elision, fairly common in Donne, is the treatment of a final unstressed y (as in the suffix -ly) as the beginning of a glide into the unstressed vowel of the next word, so that both vowels together form one syllable.
d. Occasionally, in a word of three or more syllables, a syllable between the main stressed syllable and one with secondary stress may be ignored, especially if the syllable includes at least one consonant that is a continuant (and especially if the continuant is voiced). For instance, invisible, in the third line of the passage cited above from George Chapman's translation of Homer's Iliad, is treated as having three syllables: invis'ble, "in-VIZ-buhl." This contraction of a syllable occurs frequently in ordinary speech and is called, in technical parlance, syncope ("SIN-ko-Pee").
...
From: Meter in English Verse
[http://www.amittai.com/prose/meter.php]
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Essorant
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14
posted
2005-11-26
11:09 AM
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Inflections in: - or u
1. In Neuter's nominative and accusative plural
and
2. In Feminine's nominative singular.
Sometimes syll'ble has vowel long
Sometimes has consonants that throng
Like -o- in bone, -nd in end;
To this never a -u append.
But when ye shall short vowel see
Where only one consonant may be
Like -i- and -t in wit, my friend,
To this ye may a -u append.
Thus word is "word", and "words" word too
For -rd does not want a -u!
But scip is "ship", scipu is "ships"
Now -ip rightly a -u grips!
That is plural in neuter's realm;
And singular at feminine's helm:
Lar is "lore" with long -a- in view
Ġiefu is gift, given to -u.
Word n. "word" and Scip n. "ship" Lar f. "lore" and Ġiefu f. "gift"
Singular
Neuter Feminine
Inflexion Inflexion
N. þæt/þis word | scip Seo/þeos lar | ġiefu
A. þæt/þis word | scip þa/þas lare | ġiefe
G. þæs/þisses wordes | scipes þære/þisse lare | ġiefe
D. þæm/þissum worde | scipe þære/þisse lare | ġiefe
Plural
N. þa/þas word | scipu þa/þas lara | ġiefa
A. þa/þas word | scipu þa/þas lara | ġiefa
G. þara/þissa worda | scipa þara/þissa lara | ġiefa
D. þæm/þissum wordum | scipum þæm/þissum larum | ġiefum
Specification about the -u inflection
Where L = a long syllable whose rhyme has:
-long vowel + consonant
or
-short vowel + two consonants.
And S = a short syllable whose rhyme has:
-short vowel + one consonant,
Conventionally:
L = + no u
S + S = + no u
L + S = + u
S = +u
*In phonology, rhyme is the vowel of a syllable and everything to its right. See here
*two S are equivelent to one L.
*adjectival inflections shall follow this too.
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Essorant
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15
posted
2005-11-26
11:14 AM
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Nouns (general outline)
1. The Main "Strong" Inflections
- Variations/Differences
2. The "Weak" -an Inflections
3. The Irregular
1. The Main "Strong" inflections.
Masculine
Most masculine nouns follow the paradigm/pattern shown below. It may be taken as a "standard" or "ideal" for the masculine nouns. Old English (formerly "Modern English") has its possessive 's and plural -s respectively from the "-es" and "-as" of this inflexion-group.
N - cyning "king" bocere "scribe"
A - cyning "king" bocere "scribe"
G es cyninges "king's" boceres "scribe's"
D e cyninge "(to the) king" bocere "(to the) scribe"
N as cyningas "kings" boceras "scribes"
A as cyningas "kings" boceras "scribes"
G a cyninga "kings' " bocera "scribes'"
D um cyningum "(to the) kings" bocerum "(to the) scribes"
dæġ "day" mearh "horse"
dæġ "day" mearh "horse"
dæġes "day's" meares "horse's"
dæġe "(to the) day" meare "(to the) horse"
dagas "days" mearas "horses"
dagas "days" mearas "horses"
daga "days' " meara "horses'"
dagum "(to the) days" mearum "(to the) horses"
wer "man" Þanc "thought"
wer "man" Þanc "thought"
weres "man's" Þances "thought's"
were "(to the) man" Þance "(to the) thought"
weras "men" Þancas "thoughts"
weras "men" Þancas "thoughts"
wera "men's " Þanca "thoughts'"
werum "(to the) men" Þancum "(to the) thoughts"
þæs cyninges mearas "the king's horses"
\ / |
Genitive Nominative
(singular) (plural)
þas weras "these men"
| /
Nominative (plural)
to þæm were "to the man"
\ /
Dative (singular)
þara bocera Þancas "the scribes' thoughts"
| / |
Genitive Nominative (plural)
(plural)
On þara bocera Þancum "in the scribes' thoughts"
| / |
Genitive Dative
(plural) (plural)
- æ turns to a (a back vowel) if a following syllable has back vowel. Thus in a syllable preceding inflections: -as, -a, -um.
- if there an e (as in bocere) or h (as in mearh) these are dropped in cases where inflection needs to be added. Thus bocere <-> boceras, mearh <-> mearas.
- The dative case is almost always used with prepositions, On "in", æfter "after", æt "at" be "by, beside" betweonan "between", butan "without" of "from" to "to, for"
Masculine (cont'd)
Variations/differences
The following variations/differences occur:
a) Some words have -e instead of -as in the plural.
stede "place" wine "friend"
stede "place" wine "friend"
stedes "place's" wines "friend's"
stede "(to the) place" wine "(to the) friend"
stede "places" wine "friends"
stede "places" wine "friends"
steda "places' " wina "friends'"
stedum "(to the) places" winum "(to the) friends"
- Many groups/tribes/nations have this -e. These words have only plural forms.
Engle "English" Dene "Danes"
Engle "English" Dene "Danes"
Engla "English's" Dena "Danes''"
Englum "(to the) English" Denum "(to the) Danes"
Seaxe "Saxons" Myrċe "Mercians"
Seaxe "Saxons" Myrċe "Mercians"
Seaxna "Saxons' " Myrċna "Mercians'"
Seaxum "(to the) Saxons" Myrċum "(to the) Mercians"
Romane "Romans" Norðhymbre "Northumbrians"
Romane "Romans" Norðhymbre "Northumbrians"
Romana "Romans' " Norðhymbra "Northumbrians'"
Romanum "(to the) Romans" Norðhymbrum "(to)Northumbrians"
- Also:
ylde "men" ylfe "elves"
ylde "men" ylfe "elves"
ylda "men's " ylfa "elves'"
yldum "(to the) men" ylfum "(to the) elves"
leode "people"
leode "people"
leoda "people's "
leodum "(to the) people"
Any words with the suffixes -ere, -scipe, -dom, -had, -oÞ/-aÞ, -ing/ling
also take the masculine inflections:
godspellere "gospeller" ġeferscipe "friendship"
godspellere "gospeller" ġeferscipe "friendship"
godspelleres "gospeller's" ġeferscipes "friendship's"
godspellere "(to) gospeller" ġeferscipe "(to)friendship"
godspelleras "gospellers" ġeferscipas "friendships"
godspelleras "gospellers" ġeferscipas "friendships"
godspellera "gospellers' " ġeferscipa "friendships'"
godspellerum "(to) gospellers" ġeferscipum "(to)friendships"
ealddom "age" ġeogoðhad "youthhood"
ealddom "age" ġeogoðhad "youthhood"
ealddomes "age's" ġeogoðhades "youthhood's"
ealddome "(to the) age" ġeogoðhad "(to) youthhood"
ealddomas "ages" ġeogoðhadas "youthhoods"
ealddomas "ages" ġeogoðhadas "youthhoods"
ealddoma "ages' " ġeogoðhada "youthoods'"
ealddomum "(to the) ages" ġeogoðhadum "(to) youthoods"
huntoÞ "hunting" æðeling "prince"
huntoÞ "hunting" æðeling "prince"
huntoÞes "hunting's" æðelinges "prince's"
huntoÞe "(to the) hunting" æðelinge "(to the) prince"
huntoÞas "huntings" æðelingas "princes"
huntoÞas "huntings" æðelingas "princes"
huntoÞa "huntings' " æðelinga "princes'"
huntoÞum "(to the) huntings" æðelingum "(to the) princes"
Finally, every compound that ends with a masculine word follows the masculine endings as well:
word n. + cræft m. = wordcræft m.
wordcræft "wordcraft"
wordcræft "wordcraft"
wordcræftes "wordcraft's"
wordcræft "(to the) wordcraft"
wordcræftas "wordcrafts"
wordcræftas "wordcrafts"
wordcræfta "wordcrafts' "
wordcræftum "(to the) wordcrafts"
-The -na in Seaxna and Myrċna is a "piece" from the Weak Declension. We shall see that a little later below.
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16
posted
2005-11-26
11:18 AM
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In sum: [So far]
1. The main "Strong" Inflections
Masculine Nouns
-as Most words take -as in plural: wer "man" --> weras "men"
-e Some words take -e in plural: stede "place" --> stede "places"
\
Tribal/group names that have only plural forms: Seaxe "Saxons"
- Suffixes -ere, -scipe, -dom, -had, -oÞ/-aÞ, and -ing/ling take masculine endings.
- compounds ending in masculine words take masculine endings.
-Words that should have -e in plural show up often enough with -as too, imitating the majority. E.g. wine "friends" or winas "friends" Thus there is some flexibility in the inflection.
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17
posted
2005-11-26
11:21 AM
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The Main "Strong" inflections (cont'd)
Neuter
Neuter nouns' pattern differs from Masculine's only in (normally) having no inflection (after a long syllable) or taking a -u (after a short syllable) in Plural's Nominative and Accusative.
Without -u.
N - deor "animal" wif "woman"
A - deor "animal" wif "woman"
G es deores "animal's" wifes "woman's"
D e deore "(to the) animal" wife "(to the) woman"
N "- or u" deor "animals" wif "women"
A "- or u" deor "animals" wif "women"
G a deora "animals'" wifa "women's"
D um deorum "(to the) animals" wifum "(to the) women"
ġear "year" feorh "life"
ġear "year" feorh "life"
ġeares "year's" feores "life's"
ġeare "(to the) year" feore "(to the) life"
ġear "years" feorh "lives"
ġear "years" feorh "lives"
ġeara "years' " feora "lives'"
ġearum "(to the) years" feorum "(to the) lives"
tungol "star" werod "troop"
tungol "star" werod "troop"
tungles "star's" werodes "troop's"
tungle "(to the) star" werode "(to the) troop"
tungol "stars" werod "troops"
tungol "stars" werod "troops"
tungla "stars' " weroda "troops'"
tunglum "(to the) stars" werodum "(to the) troops"
With -u
bod "command" fær "journey"
bod "command" fær "journey"
bodes "command's" færes "journey's"
bode "(to the) command" fære "(to the) journey"
bodu "commands" faru "journeys"
bodu "commands" faru "journeys"
boda "commands' " fara "journeys'"
bodum "(to the) commands" farum "(to the) journeys"
ġewrit "writing" hof "dwelling"
ġewrit "writing" hof "dwelling"
ġewrites "writing's" hofes "dwelling's"
ġewrite "(to the) writing" hofe "(to the) dwelling"
ġewritu "writings" hofu "dwellings"
ġewritu "writings" hofu "dwellings"
ġewrita "writings' " hofa "dwellings'"
ġewritum "(to the) writings" hofum "(to the) dwellings"
heafod "head" þyrel "hole"
heafod "head" þyrel "hole"
heafdes "head's" þyrles "hole's"
heafde "(to the) head" þyrle "(to the) hole"
heafdu "heads" þyrlu "holes"
heafdu "heads" þyrlu "holes"
heafda "heads' " þyrla "holes'"
heafdum "(to the) heads" þyrlum "(to the) holes"
Words that end with an -e take (normally) a -u in plural as well:
riċe "kingdom" spere "spear"
riċe "kingdom" spere "spear"
riċes "kingdom's" speres "spear's"
riċe "(to the) kingdom" spere "(to the) spear"
riċu "kingdoms" speru "spears"
riċu "kingdoms" speru "spears"
riċa "kingdoms' " spera "spears'"
riċum "(to the) kingdoms" sperum "(to the) spears"
All words with suffix -lac are neuter and do not have -u in plural.
But neuter words with the suffix -en/-enn, always (normally) have a -u. Thus:
reaflac "robbery" mæġden "maiden"
reaflac "robbery" mæġden "maiden"
reaflaces "robbery's" mædġenes "maiden's"
reaflace "(to the) robbery" mæġdene "(to the) maiden"
reaflac "robberies" mæġdenu "maidens"
reaflac "robberies" mæġdenu "maidens"
reaflaca "robberies' " mæġdena "maidens'"
reaflacum "(to the) robberies" mæġdenum "(to the)maidens"
Finally, any compound that ends in a neuter-word takes neuter endings:
man m. + cynn n. = mancynn n.
mancynn "mankind"
mancynn "mankind"
mancynnes "mankind's"
mancynne "(to the) mankind"
mancynn "mankinds"
mancynn "mankinds"
mancynna "mankinds' "
mancynnum "(to the) mankinds"
Deor "Animal"
Word History: In various Middle English texts one finds a fish, an ant, or a fox called a der, the Middle English ancestor of our word deer. In its Old English form deor, our word referred to any animal, including members of the deer family, and continued to do so in Middle English, although it also acquired the specific sense “a deer.” By the end of the Middle English period, around 1500, the general sense had all but disappeared. Deer is a commonly cited example of a semantic process called specialization, by which the range of a word's meaning is narrowed or restricted. When Shakespeare uses the expression “mice and rats, and such small deer” for Edgar's diet in King Lear, probably written in 1605, we are not sure whether deer has the general or the specific sense.
It is interesting to note that the German word Tier, the cognate of English deer, still has the general sense of “animal.”(from dictionary.com)
Riċe "Kingdom"
A similar word to Young English riċe "kingdom" is German Reich, also Old English rich, which all come from the same IE root: See here
Heafod --> Heafdu
Where did the -o- between the f and the d go?
This is called syncope which happens fairly consistently with some words.
Syncope (from dictionary.com):
The shortening of a word by omission of a sound, letter, or syllable from the middle of the word; for example, bos'n for boatswain.
Oft but not always (it is not a rule) a middle syllable that is short shall be omitted when an inflection is added to a twosyllabled word. We see this usually when the first syllable is long (having long vowel or consonant-pair) as in heafod (with a long vowel). There is no apostrophe for these syncopations, however, like in our Old English. But the learner shall meet and become familiar with these and where they occur most as he reads more Young English.
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Essorant
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18
posted
2005-11-26
11:22 AM
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In sum: [Again]
1. The main "Strong" Inflections
Neuter Nouns
- or u in plural: word(long syllable)/ scip (short syllable) ---> word /scipu.
- neuter words that end with -e take u in plural: riċe --> riċu.
- -lac doesn't take a -u; but suffix -en/enn takes -u.
- compounds ending in neuter words take neuter endings.
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19
posted
2005-11-26
11:24 AM
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The Main "Strong" inflections (cont'd)
Feminine
The following nouns are examples of feminines and how they most conventionally take inflexions.
Without -u.
N "- or u" rod "cross" eaxl "shoulder"
A e rode "cross" eaxle "shoulder"
G e rode "cross's" eaxle "shoulder's"
D e rode "(to the) cross" eaxle "(to the) shoulder"
N a roda "crosses" eaxla "shoulders"
A a roda "crosses" eaxla "shoulders"
G a roda "crosses'" eaxla "shoulders'"
D um rodum "(to the) crosses" eaxlum "(to the) shoulders"
sibb "kinship" wynn "joy"
sibbe "kinship" wynne "joy"
sibbe "kinship's" wynne "joy's"
sibbe "(to) kinship" wynne "(to the) joy"
sibba "kinships" wynna "joys"
sibba "kinships" wynna "joys"
sibba "kinships' " wynna "joys'"
sibbum "(to) kinships" wynnum "(to the) joys"
ċeaster "city" frofor "comfort"
ċeastre "city" frofre "comfort"
ċeastre "city" frofre "comfort's"
ċeastre "(to the) city" frofre "(to the) comfort"
ċeastra "cities" frofra "comforts"
ċeastra "cities" frofra "comforts"
ċeastra "cities' " frofra "comforts'"
ċeastrum "(to the) cities" frofrum "(to the) comforts"
sawol "soul" stefn "voice"
sawle "soul" stefne "voice"
sawle "soul's" stefne "voice's"
sawle "(to the) soul" stefne "(to the) voice"
sawla "souls" stefna "voices"
sawla "souls" stefna "voices"
sawla "souls' " stefna "voices'"
sawlum "(to the) souls" stefnum "(to the) voices"
With -u
lufu "love" talu "tale"
lufe "love" tale "tale"
lufe "love's" tale "tale's"
lufe "(to the) love" tale "(to the) tale"
lufa "loves" tala "tales"
lufa "loves" tala "tales"
lufa "loves' " tala "tales'"
lufum "(to the) loves" talum "(to the) tales"
A very small number of feminine nouns historically had -w- that appears everywhere but in the singular's Nominative:
beadu "battle" sceadu "shadow"
beadwe "battle" sceadwe "shadow"
beadwe "battle's" sceadwe "shadow's"
beadwe "(to the) battle" sceadwe "(to the) shadow"
beadwa "battles" sceadwa "shadows"
beadwa "battles" sceadwa "shadows"
beadwa "battles'" sceadwa "shadows'"
beadwum "(to the) battles" sceadwum "(to the) shadows"
Words with the suffixes -ung/ing, -nes/ness, -ð/ðu also take feminine inflexions:
leornung "learning" beorhtnes "brightness"
leornunge "learning" beorhtnese "brightness"
leornunge "learning" beorhtnese "brightness's"
leornunge "(to) learning" beorhtnese "(to) brightness"
leornunga "learnings" beorhtnesa "brightnesses"
leornunga "learnings" beorhtnesa "brightnesses"
leornunga "learnings' " beorhtnesa "brightnesses'"
leornungum "(to) learnings" beorhtnesum "(to) brightnesses"
treowð "truth"
treowðe "truth"
treowðe "truth's"
treowðe "(to the) truth"
treowða "truths"
treowða "truths"
treowða "truths'' "
treowðum "(to the) truths"
And any compound that ends in a feminine word:
dæġ n. + candel f. = dæġcandel f.
dæġcandel "sun"
dæġcandele "sun"
dæġcandele "sun's"
dæġcandele "(to the) sun"
dæġcandela "suns"
dæġcandela "suns"
dæġcandela "suns' "
dæġcandelum "(to the) suns"
In sum: [Again]
1. The main "Strong" Inflections
Feminine Nouns
-e inflexion throughout singular except in Nominative ,where we find "- or u"
-a inflexion throughout plural everywhere except in the dative where we find the common -um.
- -ung/ing, -nes/ness, -ð/ðu are feminine.
- compounds ending in feminine words take feminine endings.
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20
posted
2005-11-26
11:30 AM
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The Weak Declension
The other main group of inflections is the Weak Declension. In this declension we see a common use in -an in many cases. Hence, sometimes it is called the "an" declension.
The Weak/"an" inflections go thus:
Singular
Masculine Neuter Feminine
Inflexion Inflexion Inflexion
N. Se/þes a þæt/þis e Seo/þeos e
A. þone/þisne an þæt/þis e þa/þas an
G. þæs/þisses an þæs/þisses an þære/þisse an
D. þæm/þissum an þæm/þissum an þære/þisse an
Plural
N. þa/þas an þa/þas an þa/þas an
A. þa/þas an þa/þas an þa/þas an
G. þara/þissa ena þara/þissa ena þara/þissa ena
D. þæm/þissum um þæm/þissum um þæm/þissum um
There are many masculines and feminines in this group. But only three neuters!
Neuter
eage eye
eare ear
wange cheek
Masculine Feminine
guma man hruse earth
boda messenger hlæfdiġe lady
nama name ċyriċe church
mona moon þrote throat
steorra star eorðe earth
nefa nephew heorte heart
cofa chamber hearpe harp
loca enclosure sunne sun
witega prophet burne stream
frogga frog wulle wool
cnapa boy nædre snake
naca boat moþþe moth
scucca demon byrne coat of mail
flota sailor folde earth
hunta hunter bieme trumpet
liċhoma body hleapestre dancer
anda malice beċe beech
When noun ends in long vowel (or dipthong) as frea "lord" plural gentive and plural dative "absorb" the first vowel of the inflection: thus, freana (not freaena) and fream (not freaum)
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21
posted
2005-11-26
11:32 AM
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Larry C said:
And I thought Biblical Greek was hard! 
If tears could build a stairway and memories a lane, I'd walk right up to heaven and bring you home again.
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Essorant
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22
posted
2005-11-26
11:33 AM
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And iċ þohte Bocliċ Crecisc wæs heard!
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Essorant
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23
posted
2005-11-26
11:35 AM
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Irregular/Minor Inflections
The following differ from the main patterns, and include only few, but very important nouns.
I. The Sunu Nouns
(In grammars called U-Declension/U-Stems or A-Plurals)
All nouns in this group are either masculine or feminine, and follow the
pattern of Sunu m. (masculine) "son":
(Though -u in Singular's Nominative and Accusative behaves as the inflection "- or u" of the main inflections, appearing or disappearing based on syllables' length. See Post #16).
Short Syllable Long Syllable
sunu "son" eard "land"
sunu "son" eard "land"
suna "son's" earda "land's"
suna "to the sun" earda "to the land"
suna "sons" earda "lands"
suna "sons" earda "lands"
suna "sons' " earda "lands' "
sunum "to the sons" eardum "to the lands"
Masculine
sunu son eard land
medu mead flod flood
wudu wood ford ford
sidu custom had condition
weald forest
Some are gone over hearg shrine
to main endings except æppel apple
in Singular N. and A: sumor summer
winter winter
lagu "lake" færelt journey
bregu "prince"
hearu "sword"
Feminine
duru door hond hand
nosu nose cweorn mill
flor floor
Epenthesis (or Parasiting)
The -e- in both æppel and winter, and the -o- in sumor, usually lost when inflection are added to a word, are called "parasitic," or "epenthetic" from the word epenthesis:
Epenthesis:
The insertion of a sound in the middle of a word, as in Middle English thunder from Old English thunor. (from dictionary.com)
[the -o- in þunor is epenthetic too]
Epenthesis (a process that inserts a segment into a particular environment) results from the anticipation of an upcoming sound. Ex. ‘ganra’ became ‘gandra’ (gander) in a later form by adding the ‘d’ . See here.
The -t- in the word stream is also epenthetic:
[Middle English streme, from Old English stram. See sreu- in Indo-European Roots.] (from dictionary.com)
Epenthetic vowels often rise betwixt consonant + m, n, l or r.
And words with them usually behave in Young English as if those vowels are not there, thus winter, like wintr, (a long syllable) (and also tungol n. "star" that we saw before in the Main "Strong" Declensions.
II. Family-Nouns
Fæder Broðor
fæder "father" broðor "brother"
fæder "father" broðor "brother"
fæder "father's" broðor "brother's
fæder "to the father" breðor "to the brother"
fæderas "fathers" broðor "brothers"
fæderas "fathers" broðor "brothers"
fædera "fathers'" broðra "brothers'"
fæderum "to the fathers" broðrum "to the brothers"
Modor Sweostor
modor "mother" sweostor "sister"
modor "mother" sweostor "sister"
modor "mother's" sweostor "sister's
meder "to the mother" sweostor "to the sister"
modra "mothers" sweostor "sisters"
modra "mothers" sweostor "sisters"
modra "mothers'" sweostra "sisters'"
modrum "to the mothers" sweostrum "to the sisters"
Dohtor
dohtor "daughter"
dohtor "daughter"
dohtor "daughter's"
dehter "to the daughter"
dohtor "daughters"
dohtor "daughters"
dohtra "daughters'"
dohtrum "to the daughters"
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Essorant
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24
posted
2005-11-26
11:37 AM
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Larry C said:
Gotta love a teacher with a good sense of humor.
If tears could build a stairway and memories a lane, I'd walk right up to heaven and bring you home again.
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Essorant
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25
posted
2005-11-26
11:38 AM
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Ic lufie leorneras and leornunge.
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Essorant
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26
posted
2005-11-26
11:40 AM
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Note: The grammatical gender of each Family-noun is in "agreement" with natural gender: Thus Fæder and broðor are Masculine. Modor, sweostor, and dohtor are Feminine.
And broðor and sweostor are pluralia tantum when they show up with the prefix ġe: ġebroðor "brothers" ġesweostor "sisters"
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27
posted
2005-11-26
11:41 AM
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Irregular/Minor Inflections (cont'd)
III. Mann/Menn-Nouns
The i-thing (sometimes known as i-umlaut or i-mutation or front-mutation)
Umlaut [German, from um about + laut sound.]
[In Philology] The euphonic modification of a root vowel sound by the influence of a, u, or especially i, in the syllable which formerly followed. [From: dictionary.com]
The following have some cases that are influenced by a special letter i. When this i was near, it put influence over a vowel, and then the vowel became closer to the i-sound.
Thus the earier plural nominative for mann was manniz. The i in the ending -iz then influenced the a to become e; similarly others were influenced, o to become e, u to become y; or a to become æ.
This influential i vanished but left behind a trail of influenced vowels as tokens to remind us it was there: men, feet, teeth, lice, mice, breeches, etc. (and also the breðer and meder, of the family-nouns above.)
(there are no neuters in this group)
Masculines:
mann "man" wifmann "woman"
mann "man" wifmann "woman"
mannes "man's" wifmannes "woman's"
menn "(to the) man" wifmenn "(to the) woman"
menn "men" wifmenn "women"
menn "men" wifmenn "women"
manna "men's' " wifmanna "women's"
mannum "(to the) men" wifmannum "(to the) women"
fot "foot" toð "tooth"
fot "foot" toð "tooth"
fotes "foot's" toðes "tooth's"
fet "(to the) foot" teð "(to the) tooth"
fet "feet" teð "teeth"
fet "feet" teð "teeth"
fota "feet's" toða "teeth's"
fotum "(to the) feet" toðum "(to the) teeth"
Feminines:
boc "book" cu "cow"
boc "book" cu "cow"
beċ "book's" cy "cow's"
beċ "(to the) book" cy "(to the) cow"
beċ "books" cy "kine"
beċ "books" cy "kine"
boca "books'" cyna "kine's"
bocum "(to the) books" cunum "(to the) kine"
broc "(pair of) breeches" gos "goose"
broc "(pair of) breeches" gos "goose"
breċ "(pair of) breeches's" ges "goose's"
breċ "(to the) breeches" ges "(to the) goose"
breċ "(pairs of) breeches" ges "geese"
breċ "(pairs of) breeches" ges "geese"
breċena "(pairs of) breeches''" gosa "geese's"
brocum "(to the) breeches" gosum "(to the) geese"
mus "mouse" lus "louse"
mus "mouse" lus "louse"
mys "mouse's" lys "louse's"
mys "(to the) mouse" lys "(to the) louse"
mys "mice" lys "lice"
mys "mice" lys "lice"
musa "mice's" lusa "lice's"
musum "(to the) mice" lusum "(to the) lice"
burg "city" turf "turf"
burg "city" turf "turf"
byriġ "city's" tyrf "turf's"
byriġ "(to the) city" tyrf "(to the) turf"
byriġ "cities" tyrf "turfs"
byriġ "cities" tyrf "turfs"
burga "cities'" turfa "turfs' "
burgum "(to the) cities" turfum "(to the) turfs"
hnutu "nut" studu "post"
hnutu "nut" studu "post"
hnyte "nut's" styde "post's"
hnyte "(to the) nut" styde "(to the) post"
hnyte "nuts" styde "posts"
hnyte "nuts" styde "posts"
hnuta "nuts' " studa "posts' "
hnutum "(to the) nuts" studum "(to the) posts"
ac "oak" gat "goat"
ac "oak" gat "goat"
æc "oak's" gæt "goat"
æc "(to the) oak" gæt "(to the) goat"
æc "oaks" gæt "goats"
æc "oaks" gæt "goats"
aca "oaks' '" gata "goats' "
acum "(to the) oaks" gætum "(to the) goats"
furh "furrow" sulh "plough"
furh "furrow" sulh "plough"
fyrh "furrow's" sylh "plough's"
fyrh "(to the) furrow" sylh "(to the) plough"
fyrh "furrows" sylh "ploughs"
fyrh "furrows" sylh "ploughs"
fura "furrows' " sula "ploughs' "
furum "(to the) furrows" sulum "(to the) ploughs"
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28
posted
2005-11-26
11:43 AM
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Rhotacism
Below are some words you may find interesting.
S/Z R
English
was were
us our
raise rear
forleosan "to abandon" forloren "abandoned"
ceosan "to choose" coren "chosen"
isern "iron" iren "iron"
Gothic
auso ear
dius dear
maiza more
batiza better
huzd hoard
hausjan hear
laisjan learn
aiz ore
Latin
corpus "body" corpor- (corporation)
tempus "time" tempor- (temporary)
genus "kind" gener- (generation)
pectus "breast" pector- (pectoral)
funis "funeral" funer- (funeral)
opus "work" oper- (operation)
rus "country" rur- (rural)
ius "justice" iur- (jury)
ros "dew" ror- (?)
flos "blossom" flor- (floral)
onus "burden" oner- (onerous)
mos "custom" mor- (moral)
os "mouth" or- (oral)
Gothic dags "day" Old Norse dagr "day"
Latin dies "day"
In each example there is a form with an s or z, and a different or later form that shows an r where the s/z otherwise should be. This change, or difference, is called Rhotacism: An s or z became, or becomes r. It is a unique change and explains the uniqueness of the next group of nouns we shall meet. (hint: think of the word children)
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29
posted
2005-11-26
11:47 AM
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Irregular/Minor Inflections (cont'd)
IV. Lamb/Lambru Nouns
Here are some old relics come down from Young English that have rhotacism in their plurals. Their original suffix had an -s-. It disappeared in the singular, but was retained in the plural in its rhotacised form: -r-. The element and the behavior is the same as those in the latin words tempus "time", genus "kind" etc. All of them are neuter!
æġ "egg" ċealf "calf"
æġ "egg" ċealf "calf"
æġes "egg's" ċealfes "calf's"
æġe "to the egg" ċealfe "to the calf"
æġru "eggs" ċealfru "calves"
æġru "eggs" ċealfru "calves"
æġra "eggs' " ċealfra "calves'"
æġrum "to the eggs" ċealfrum "to the calves"
lamb "lamb" ċild "child"
lamb "lamb" ċild "child"
lambes "lamb's" ċildes "child's"
lambe "to the lamb" ċilde "to the child"
lambru "lambs" ċildru "children"
lambru "lambs" ċildru "children"
lambra "lambs' " ċildra "children's"
lambrum "to the lambs" ċildrum "to the children"
bread "crumb" speld "torch"
bread "crumb" speld "torch"
breades "crumb's" speldes "torch's"
breade "to the crumb" spelde "to the torch"
breadru "crumbs" speldru "torches"
breadru "crumbs" speldru "torches"
breadra "crumbs' " speldra "torches' "
breadrum "to the crumbs" speldrum "to the torches"
hæmed "cohabitation"
hæmed "cohabitation"
hæmedes "cohabitation's"
hæmede "to the cohabitation"
hæmedru "cohabitations"
hæmedru "cohabitations"
hæmedra "cohabitations"
hæmedrum "to the cohabitations"
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30
posted
2005-11-26
11:51 AM
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V. Hæleþ m., Monaþ m., Mæġeþ f., Ealu n.
Hæleþ Monaþ
hæleþ "hero" monaþ "month"
hæleþ "hero" monaþ "month"
hæleþes "hero's" monaþes "month's
hæleþe "to the hero" monaþe "to the month"
hæleþ "heros" monaþ "months"
hæleþ "heros" monaþ "months"
hæleþa "heros'" monaþa "months'"
hæleþum "to the heros" monaþum "to the months"
Mæġeþ Ealu
mæġeþ "maiden" ealu "ale"
mæġeþ "maiden" ealu "ale"
mæġeþ "maiden's" ealoþ "ale's
mæġeþ "to the maiden" ealoþ "to the ale"
mæġeþ "maidens" ealoþ "ales"
mæġeþ "maidens" ealoþ "ales"
mæġeþa "maidens'" ealeþa "ales'"
mæġeþum "to the maidens" ealeþum "to the ales"
Note: another form, hæle (without -þ) shows up in the singular nominative and accusative cases.
Hæleþ and monaþ also both show up with nominative and accusative plurals that take -as from the masculine's main "strong" inflections: hæleþas "heros", monaþas "months".
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31
posted
2005-11-26
11:52 AM
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Some word Equations:
Bryd "bride" + Ealu "ale" = Brydealu "bridal"
Bryd "bride" + Guma "man" = Brydguma "bridegroom"
Where did the r in (bride)groom come from?
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32
posted
2005-11-26
11:53 AM
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VI. The -end
The final "minority" of nouns has the special ending -end, which commonlier betokens in Young English the present participle of a verb.
Few present participles, though, were specially used as nouns and may often be translated with an Old English present participle in -ing followed by the word "one" or a verbal noun that ends with -er, such as lover. Two words that survived into Old English from this group are friend and fiend. Truly their Young English origin may widen one's insight of their meaning.
Verb: Freoġan "to free; to love" Present participle: freoġende "freeing; loving"
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used as a noun: freond "freeing/loving one"
Verb: Feoġan "to hate" Present participle: feoġende "hating"
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used as a noun: feond "hating one"
A B
freond "friend" hælend "savior"
freond "friend" hælend "savior"
freondes "friend's" hælendes "savior's"
friend "to the friend" hælende "to the savior"
friend "friends" hælend "saviors"
friend "friends" hælend "saviors"
freonda "friends' " hælendra "saviors' "
freondum "to the friends" hælendum "to the savior"
A. Three other nouns follow the pattern of freond "friend":
feond fiend
teond accuser
goddond good-doer
B. All other nouns follow the pattern of hælend "savior":
sellend giver wiġend warrior
demend judge ehtend persecutor
eardiend dweller fultumiend helper
healdend chief sceotend warrior
nerġend savior wealdend ruler
rædend ruler ridend rider
scyppend shaper helpend helper
wrecend avenger semend arbitrator
metend measurer beswicend deceiver
secgend sayer galend enchanter
agend owner hlystend listener
berend bearer læstend doer
buend dweller liþend sailor
hæbbend owner tælend reprover
hettend enemy sawolberend soulbearer
All the nouns above are Masculine and sometimes show up with nominative and accusative plurals in --as from the masculine's main "strong" inflections: freondas "friends", hettendas "enemies".
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33
posted
2005-11-26
11:55 AM
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Nights, Days, and Months
The first half of the day was: Niht
The second half of the day was: Dæg
Niht
Sunnanniht "Sun's night" (Saturday Night)
Monanniht "Moon's night" (Sunday Night)
Tiwesniht "Tiw's night" (Monday Night)
Wodnesniht "Wodan's night" (Tuesday Night)
Ðunresniht "Thor's night" (Wednesday Night)
Frigeniht "Frigg's night" (Thursday Night)
Sæterniht "Saturn's night" (Friday Night)
Dæg
Sunnandæg "Sun's Day" (Sunday)
Monandæg "Moon's Day" (Monday)
Tiwesdæg "Tiw's Day" (Tuesday)
Wodnesdæg "Wodan's Day" (Wednesday)
Ðunresdæg "Thor's Day" (Thursday)
Frigedæg "Frigg's Day" (Friday)
Sæterndæg "Saturn's Day" (Saturday)
Monaþ
Ærra Geola "Ere Yule" (December)
Æftera Geola "After Yule" (January)
Solmonaþ "Soilmonth" (February)
Hreðmonaþ "Hreth's Month" (March)
Eostremonaþ "Easter's Month" (April)
Þrimilce "Threemilkings" (May)
Ærra Liða "Ere Midsummer" (June)
Æftera Liða "After Midsummer"(July)
Weodmonaþ "Weedmonth" (August)
Haligmonaþ "Holy Month" (September)
Winterfylleð "Winter's fullmoon"(October)
Blotmonaþ "Sacrifice-month" (November)
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34
posted
2005-11-26
11:57 AM
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Adjectives
B. Adjectives
The adjective takes inflections according to the grammatical conditions (gender, case, and number) in the noun it serves. If the noun is masculine and in nominative and plural, the adjective must take masculine inflection and be in nominative and plural too.
Nominative: subject and activity. (The fair Queen...)
Accusative: object and passivity. (kissed the keen King.)
Genitive: possessive. (The keen King's Queen...)
Dative: indirect object. (gave kisses to the keen King)
(Remember dative shows up mostly after prepositions. Especially after on "in, on", mid "with" to "to" and of "from")
There are two inflexion-groups: The Strong Declension and The Weak Declension
The most important condition of the Weak Declension is its firm use when the adjective follows a form of se "the" or ðes "this". That is where you shall find it most often in Young English. Other places are: after a possessive pronoun; in second person directly addressing someone (you sweet lady, you dear lord); in comparitives (wiser, fairer, stronger); and in ordinal numbers (except only oðer "second" that always takes strong inflexions!)
The Strong Declension is used everywhere else.
The Strong Declension:
beorht "bright"
Masculine Neuter Feminine
- beorht - beorht - or u beorht
ne beorhtne - beorht e beorhte
es beorhtes es beorhtes re beorhtre
um beorhtum um beorhtum re beorhtre
e beorhte - or u beorht a beorhta
e beorhte - or u beorht a beorhta
ra beorhtra ra beorhtra ra beorhtra
um beorhtum um beorhtum um beorhtum
The Weak Declension:
a beorhta e beorhte e beorhte
an beorhtan e beorhte an beorhtan
an beorhtan an beorhtan an beorhtan
an beorhtan an beorhtan an beorhtan
e beorhtan an beorhtan an beorhtan
e beorhtan an beorhtan an beorhtan
ena beorhtena ena beorhtena ena beorhtena
um beorhtum um beorhtum um beorhtum
The inflections in red are the only ones either different in form (as ne, re and ra) or use (as um in singular, e in plural) from the main nouns' inflections.
ne, re and ra don't chime with the main nouns' inflections. However, they do chime with the corresponding forms of "the"
Word with Inflection "The"-form
beorhtne þone
beorhtre þære
beorhtra þara
The Weak Declension's inflections are exactly the same as the inflexions in the Noun's Weak Declension.
Vocabulary
god good har hoar
yfel evil ġeong young
fæġer fair miċel mickle
glæd glad beald bold
blæc black brun brown
maniġ many haliġ holy
fea few efen even
ċeald cold lang long
sæd satiated deop deep
wær wary deorc dark
dol foolish eald old
heard hard hwit white
trum strong halt lame
ful foul great large
hal whole smæl small
read red wraþ wroth
wæt wet scort short
stearc stiff ranc proud
nacod naked bysiġ busy
deore dear grene green
riċe rich brad broad
riht right wis wise
scearp sharp sar soar
strang strong wearm warm
wac weak wid wide
eall all feorr far
full full dunn dun
open open fæġen glad
seoc sick idel idle
cræftiġ skillful wilde wild
cene bold clæne clean
cynde natural bliþe blithe
liþe lithe freo free
heah high sum some
niewe new wierþe worthy
æðele noble torht bright
eċe eternal mære famous
læne temporary hnæsc nesh
swiþ strong leof lief
ġeorn eager eadiġ happy
ġearu yare gleaw wise
hræd quick hold gracious
este graceful dierne hidden
hlutor clear wod mad
snotor wise deagol secret
hnot bald soþ true
til good rof brave
fracoþ vile wacor vigilant
frod wise wealt unsteady
fram active þearl severe
freċ bold wlanc pround
frum original rum roomy
earg cowardly wræst firm
nytt useful midd middle
earm poor snell ready
fus eager flugol fleet
laþ hateful plegol playful
wund wounded flacor flickering
hror brave atol terrible
sweotol clear forod decayed
etol gluttonous hol hollow
reċen ready breme famous
eġle troublesome andrysne terrible
æltæwe entire ieþe eath
fæġe fated bryċe useful
ierre angry andfenge acceptable
ġesibb akin fæcne deceitful
swiċe deceitful stæġle steep
row quiet sciene beautiful
hneaw stingy ġedefe fitting
ġemæne common cuþ known
hean despised fah hostile
fyrn old ġemyne mindful
The "- or u" inflectional rule stands the same as in the nouns.
The suffixes below though take only one or the other almost all the time.
With u
-sum "-some"
lufsum lovesome angsum troublesome
ansum onesome wilsum willsome
friðsum peaceful wynsum joysome
fremsum beneficial weorcsum worksome
ġeleafsum beliefsome larsum loresome
ġesibbsum friendly langsum longsome
-liċ "-like"
heofonliċ heavenly ænliċ unique
woruldliċ worldly torhtliċ glorious
gastliċ ghostly earmliċ poorly
lichamliċ bodily deadliċ deadly
tidliċ timely wifliċ wifely
dæġliċ daily werliċ manly
nytliċ useful ċildliċ childly
stowliċ local ġearliċ yearly
-iġ "-y"
cræftiġ crafty wlitiġ beautiful
wordiġ wordy grædiġ greedy
þorniġ thorny spediġ speedy
andiġ envious ġesæliġ happy
adliġ sick hungriġ hungery
dyrstiġ daring staniġ stoney
scyldiġ guilty deawiġ dewy
cystiġ bountiful modiġ moody
geþyldiġ patient fyrstiġ frosty
omiġ rusty ystiġ stormy
sariġ sorry blodiġ bloody
haliġ holy maniġ many
-en "-en"
meolcen milken þyrnen of thorns
seolcen silken tiġelen of tile
leaden leaden rinden of rind
æscen ashen piċen of pitch
æcen oaken sceapen of sheep
bænen of bone cryccen of clay
beċen of beech flinten of flint
moddren of mothers floden of river
fæderen of fathers heorten of hart
beanen of beans hearmascinnen of ermine
bloden of blood holen of holly
byxen of boxwood cypren of copper
fyren of fire fellen of fells (skins)
beren of barley linden of linden-wood
eorðen earthen linen of flax
purpuren of purple huniġtearen nectar-like
stylen of steel elpendbænen of elephant-bone
stænen of stone elebeamen of olive-tree
swinen of swine hyrnen of horn
treowen of tree fyxen of fox
tinen of tin yteren of otterskin
rosen of roses lyften of air
flæscen of flesh deoren of wild animal
godwebben of purple-cloth deorfellen of animal-hides
tunglen of stars hriðeren of rother (cattle)
twinen of twine gæten of goat
ættren poisonous hunden of hound
seolfren silvern hwælen of whale
gylden golden wirtreowen of myrtle
leðren leathern hwæten of wheat
siden of silk riscen of rushes
hæren of hair eletreowen of olive tree
hwilen of a while cwicbeamen of aspen
bræsen brazen pællen of pall
ġielpen boastful ryġen of rye
Without u
-cund "-kind"
æðelecund noblekind sawolcund soulkind
weoroldcund worldkind eorðcund earthkind
godcund Godkind feorrcund farkind
gastcund ghostkind deofolcund devilkind
heofoncund heavenkind esnecund slavekind
innancund innerkind yfelcund evilkind
-fæst "-fast"
stedefæst steadfast mæġenfæst mainfast
siġefæst victorious eorðfæst earthfast
ærendfæst errandfast hyġefæst thoughtful
wiffæst wifefast treowfæst faithful
husfæst housefast ġieffæst gifted
arfæst virtuous þeawfæst thewfast
-isc "-ish"
bryttisc British englisc English
scyttisc Scottish pihtisc Pictish
centisc Kentish wielisc Welsh
ebreisc Hebrew iudeisc Judaish
crecisc Greek saracenisc Saracen
frenċisc French romanisc Roman
persisc Persian gallisc Gaulish
pirenisc Pyrrhenian pierisc Pierian
Saduceisc Sadducean farisceisc Pharisaic
denisc Danish inlendisc native
folcisc folkish entish giantish
eorlisc noble ċildisc childish
heofonisc heavenish mennisc human
-full "-ful"
wundorfull wonderful wuldorfull glorious
wordfull wordful ġeleaffull beliefful
bismerfull disgraceful bealofull baleful
eġefull awful scyldfull guilty
ġeornfull yearnful þancfull thoughtful
andġietfull intellegent modfull moodful
-leas "-less"
domleas inglorious dreamleas joyless
weorþleas worthless spræcleas speechess
arleas impious modleas spiritless
hamleas homeless sacleas innocent
-feald "-fold"
anfeald onefold maniġfeald manifold
felafeald manifold hundfeald hundredfold
seofonfeald sevenfold twentiġfeald twentyfold
-weard "-ward"
andweard present æfterweard following
toweard toward hamweard homeward
ufeweard upward niþerweard netherward
innanweard inward forþweard forthward
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35
posted
2005-11-26
11:59 AM
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Adjectives (cont'd)
Comparatives and Superlatives
All comparatives take the Weak Declension's endings. And all superlatives use either the Strong or the Weak Declension, just as normal adjectives.
Regular
Postive Comparative Superlative
(Normal Adjective)
leof "dear" leofra "dearer" leofost "dearest"
heard "hard" heardra "harder" heardost "hardest"
earm "poor" earmra "poorer" earmost "poorest"
bliðe "blithe" bliðra "blither" bliðost "blithest"
cene "keen" cenra "keener" cenost "keenest"
fæġer "fair" fæġerra "fairer" fæġerost "fairest" Irregular
A few adjectives originally took the suffixes -ra,-st beginning with an i: ira, ist The i in the ending then altered the word's vowel, just like in the mann/menn nouns. And the i in ist shows up as e in -est instead of the regular -ost
brad "broad" brædra "broader" brædest "broadest"
eald "old" ieldra "older" ieldest "oldest"
strang "strong" strengra "stronger" strengest "strongest"
lang "long" lengra "longer" lengest "longest"
ġeong "young" ġingra "younger" ġingest "youngest"
great "great" grietra "greater" grietest "greatest"
heah "high" hiehra "higher" hiehest "highest"
sceort "short" scyrtra "shorter" scyrtest "shortest"
A small group of comparative and superlative adjectives are from different
roots than the "positives":
god "good" -- betra "better" betst "best"
\ selra "better" selest "best"
lytel "little" læssa "less" læst "least"
miċel "great" mara "greater" mæst "greatest"
yfel "evil" wiersa "worse" wierrest "worst"
Finally, there are some comparative and superlative adjectives made from
adverbs. The superlative sometimes shows up in -ma or -mest
Adverbs Adjectives
Comparative Superlative
ær "formerly" ærra "earlier" ærest "first"
fore "before" No comparative fyrest, forma, fyrmest "first"
æfter "after" æfterra "afterer" æftemest "aftmost"
neah "nigh" nearra "near" niehst "next"
feorr "far" fierra "farer" fierrest "farest"
hindan "behind" No comparative hindema "behindmost"
inne "inside" innerra "inner" innemest "inmost"
ute "outside" uterra "outer" utemest "outmost"
neoþan "below" niÞerra "lower" niþemest "lowest"
ufan "above" uferra "upper" ufemest "upmost"
siþ "late" siþra "later" siþest "latest"
norþ "north(ward)" norþerra "norther" norþmest "northmost"
suþ "south(ward)" suþerra "souther" suþmest "southmost"
east "east(ward)" easterra "easter" eastmest "eastmost"
west "west(ward)" westerra "wester" westmest "westmost"
The below, though not from adverbs, also have superlatives in -mest:
midd "middle" No comparative midemest "midmost"
læt "late" lætra "later" lætemest, lætest "latest"
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36
posted
2005-11-26
12:00 PM
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Nouns and Adjectives' inflections: Summary.
The following table may be helpful for memorizing the Young English inflections.
MAIN WEAK SUNU- STRONG
STRONG NOUNS NOUNS/ADJECTIVES NOUNS ADJECTIVES
Masc. Neut. Fem. | Masc. Neut. Fem. |Masc/Fem | Masc. Neut. Fem.
N. - - (u) | a e e | (u) | - - (u)
A. - - e | an e an | (u) | ne - e
G. es es e | an an an | a | es es re
D. e e e | an an an | a | um um re
pl. | '.____ ____/ | |
N. as (u) a | `an/ | a | e (u) a
A. as (u) a | an | a | e (u) a
G. a a a | ena | a | ra ra ra
D. um um um | um | um | um um um
(u) = "- or u"
Some points to remember:
*Where the ending as is we should remember nation-names and some other peoples have e (Engle "Angles", Dene "Danes" et cetera).
*Strong Neuter nouns with nominative singular e (riċe "kingdom") always have their plural in u (riċu "kingdoms").
*The "Main Strong Nouns" have one masc. (bearu "grove") and six or seven neuters that end in u in sg. N. and A. (bealu "bale", cudu "cud", teoru "tar", meolu "meal, flour", searu "device", smeoru "fat"). As well some feminines as we saw earlier in beadu "battle" and sceadu "shadow". When the inflections are added to these the u shows up as w, so: bearwes "grove's", teorwe "(to the) tar". A few adjectives behave similarly: ġearu "yare", fealu "fallow", basu "purple", calu "callow", cylu "spotted"; ġeolu "yellow", hasu "grey" mearu "tender", nearu "narrow", sealu "dark" After the inflections beginning with consonants (ne, re, and ra) the u shows up as o, thus: ġearone, sealore, ġealora.
*Strong adjectives with e (grene "green") in masc. or neut.'s nominative, always shall have u in neut's plural or fem.'s singular. (grenu)
*Neuter only has three weak nouns: eage "eye", eare "ear", wange "cheek"
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37
posted
2005-11-26
12:02 PM
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Numerals
Cardinals Ordinals
an "one" forma "first"
twegen "two" oðer "second"
þreo "three" þridda "third"
feower "four" feowerþa "fourth"
fif "five" fifta "fifth"
siex "six" siexta "sixth"
seofon "seven" seofoþa "seventh"
eahta "eight" eahtoþa "eighth"
nigon "nine" nigoþa "nineth"
tien "ten" teoþa "tenth"
endleofan "eleven" endleofta "eleventh"
twelf "twelve" twelfta "twelfth"
þreotien "thirteen" þreoteoþa "thirteenth"
feowertien"fourteen" feowerteoþa "fourteenth"
fiftien "fifteen" fifteoþa "fifteenth"
siextien "sixteen" siexteoþa "sixteenth"
seofontien"seventeen" seofonteoþa "seventeenth"
eahtatien "eighteen" eahtateoþa "eighteenth"
nigontien "nineteen" nigonteoþa "nineteenth"
twentiġ "twenty" twentigoþa "twentieth"
an and twentiġ "twenty-one" an and twentigoþa "twenty-first"
tweġen and twentiġ"twenty-two" tweġen and twentigoþa"twenty-second"
þreo and twentig "twenty-three" þreo and twentigoþa "twenty-third"
________ __________
et cetera
þritiġ "thirty" þritigoþa "thirtieth"
feowertiġ "fourty" feowertigoþa "fourtieth"
fiftiġ "fifty" fiftigoþa "fiftieth"
siextiġ "sixty" siextigoþa "sixtieth"
hundseofontiġ"seventy" hundseofontigoþa"seventieth"
hundeahtatiġ "eighty" hundeahtatigoþa "eightieth"
hundnigontiġ "ninety" hundnigontigoþa "ninetieth"
hundteontiġ "100" hundteontigoþa "100th"
(or hund, hundred)
an and hundteontiġ "101" an and hundteontigoþa "101st"
tweġen and hundteontiġ "102" tweġen and hundteontigoþa "102nd"
þreo and hundteontiġ "103" þreo and hundteontigoþa "103rd"
________ __________
et cetera
hundendleofantiġ "110" hundendleofantigoþa "110th"
hundtwelftiġ "120" hundtwelftigoþa "120th"
hund and þritiġ "130" hund and þritigoþa "130th"
hund and an and þritiġ "131" hund and an and þritigoþa "131st"
hund and tweġen and þritiġ "132" hund and tweġen and þritigoþa "132st"
hund and þreo and þritiġ "133" hund and þreo and þritigoþa "133rd"
________ __________
et cetera
hund and feowertiġ "140" hund and feowertigoþa "140th"
hund and fiftiġ "150" hund and fiftigoþa "150th"
hund and siextiġ "160" hund and siextigoþa "160th"
hund and seofontiġ "170" hund and seofontigoþa "170th"
hund and eahtatiġ "180" hund and eahtatigoþa "180th"
hund and nigontiġ "190" hund and nigontigoþa "190th"
twa hundteontiġ "200" twa hundteontigoþa "200th"
(or twa hund, twa hundred)
an and twa hundteontiġ "201" an and twa hundteontigoþa "201st"
(or twa hund and an)
tweġen and twa hundteontiġ "202" tweġen and twa hundteontigoþa"202nd"
(or twa hund and tweġen)
þreo and twa hundteontiġ "203" þreo and twa hundteontigoþa "203rd"
(or twa hund and þreo)
________ __________
et cetera
þreo hundteontiġ "300" þreo hundteontigoþa "300th"
feower hundteontiġ "400" feower hundteontigoþa "400th"
fif hundteontiġ "500" fif hundteontigoþa "500th"
siex hundteontiġ "600" siex hundteontigoþa "600th"
seofon hundteontiġ "700" seofon hundteontigoþa "700th"
eahta hundteontiġ "800" eahta hundteontigoþa "800th"
nigon hundteontiġ "900" nigon hundteontigoþa "900th"
þusend "1000" þusendteontigoþa "1000th"
(or þusendteontiġ) (or þusendoþa)
Note: I don't think ordinals for 300, 400, 500, etc, nor for 1000 occurred anywhere in literature written in Young English. The forms for those above are based on the others and added for possiblity and completeness.
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38
posted
2005-11-26
12:04 PM
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Numerals (cont'd): Inflections
Cardinals
An "one"
The Cardinal an "one" takes ordinary weak and strong adjectival inflections.
In the weak, usually ana, it means "alone"
It may be used in plural for collective meaning as well.
tweġen (literally twain) "two"
Masculine Neuter Feminine
(plurals only)
N. tweġen twa twa
A. tweġen twa twa
G. tweġra tweġra tweġra
D. twæm twæm twæm
For neuter twa we find tu as well.
þreo "three"
N. þrie þreo þreo
A. þrie þreo þreo
G. þreora þreora þreora
D. þrim þrim þrim
begen "both"
(Like tweġen)
N. beġen ba ba
A. beġen ba ba
G. beġra beġra beġra
D. bæm bæm bæm
For neuter ba we find bu as well.
ba and twa sometimes form combination, ba twa "both", used both in masculine and feminine, usually bu tu (or one word, butu) in neuter.
The other cardinals most usually don't take inflections. Where they do we find normal stong inflections.Ordinals
All ordinals except oðer (literally other) "second" take Weak adjective inflections. oðer takes Strong adjective inflections.
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39
posted
2005-11-26
12:06 PM
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Personal Pronouns
FIRST SECOND THIRD PERSON
PERSON PERSON
iċ þu he hit heo
N. iċ "I" þu "you" he "he" hit "it" heo "she"
A. me "me" þe "you" hine "him" hit "it" hie "her"
G. min "my" þin "your" his "his" his "its" hire "her"
D. me "me" þe "you" him "him" him "it" hire "her"
___________ ___________
\ /
N. we "we" ġe "you" hie "they"
A. us "us" eow "you" hie "them"
G. ure "our" eower "your" hiera "their"
D. us "us" eow "you" him "them"
The first and second also have a "dual" number meaning "we two" and "you two:"
wit ġit
N. wit "we two" ġit "you two"
A. unc "us two" inc "you two"
G. uncer "our" incer "your"
D. unc "us two" inc "you two"
The first and the second genitives (min, ure, uncer ; þin, eower, incer) behave just as adjectives, with possessive meaning (my house, our house, our house (of us two); thy house, your house, your house (of you two) ) and always take the inflections of the Strong Declension.
For the third person's possessive, the genitives show up just as they are: his, hire and hiera.
And rarely, sin is used for any of them, declined in endings from the adjective's Strong Declension.
Sometime first and second person accusatives show up with-c (like in ic) : mec "me" usic "us" þec "you" eowic "you" And sometimes dual accusatives show up with -t (like in wit, git): uncit "us two" incit "you two"
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40
posted
2005-11-26
12:19 PM
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Verbs
There are two main kinds of verb in Young English: The Strong and the Weak.
The strong verb changes its vowel to show past tense as Old English drink/drank. And the weak verb uses d to show past tense, as love/loved, that, after some consonants, is t, such as in think/thought. The vowel difference in think/thought is based on a different change, and similarily for, tell/told. But the d/t in past tense lets us know for sure that these are weak verbs.
The Strong Verb
The verb that changes its vowel; ride/rad "ride/rode"
Main Indicative (doing)
CLASS A strong verb fits into one of seven classes.
The grade is the vowel that the verb will show
First Grade in contrast with other "grades."
Under First Grade we find infinitives (one with
Infinitive: -an "to" as in "to go" and one without "to") and
(to) -enne present tense. The infinitives correspond
Present to any Old English verb with to in front
1 sg. -e of it: to rise, to sing, etc. The one without "to"
2 sg. -est before it though was foremost in use.
3 sg. -eð The present tense is broken down into the persons
1, 2, 3 pl -að singular: first singular (1 sg.; I sing),
second singular (2 sg.; you sing), third singular
pr.part. -ende (3 sg.; he/she/it sings). And the persons plural
(1, 2, 3 pl.): first plural (we sing), second
Past plural (you sing) and third plural (they sing)
Second Grade taken altogether because they all have the same
1, 3 sg - inflection -að. The present participle (pr.part.)
corresponds to any Old English verb with -ing
Third Grade (rising, singing, etc.)
2 sg -e In the 2nd, 3rd, 4th Grades we find the past tense
1, 2, 3 pl -on and past participle. In past tense the first
and third persons singular go under the 2nd Grade
Fourth Grade and both take no inflection (indicated by the dash).
past.part. -en The second singular and first, second, third persons
_______________ plural go under the Third Grade, the latter taken
altogether because they have the same inflection -on.
Optative: Finally, the past participle (past.part.) is in
(First Grade) the 4th Grade, and corresponds to Old taken, broken
Present
1, 2, 3 sg -e Optative (potentiality)
1, 2, 3 pl -en * sometimes called "subjunctive"
(Third Grade) To express something potential, wished for, imagined
Past etc, the optative is used. It corresponds somewhat
1, 2, 3 sg -e to saying I go meaning "I will go" later, tommorow etc,
1, 2, 3 pl -en in contrast with I go meaning "I presently am going".
_______________ The Present takes the vowel of the First Grade.
The Past takes the vowel of the Third Grade.
Imperative:
(First Grade) Imperative (commanding)
2 sg -
2 pl -að The commanding voice ("Go!" "Sing me a song" etc.) is
used only in the second person singular and plural.
It takes the same grade as the present tense.
Classes I, II, III
Note:
-In Class I the third grade and the fourth grade are the same
-In Class III we find three sub-series because the vowels differered a bit according to consonants pairs that followed them. The consonants pairs characteristically begin with a "nasal" (m or n) or "liquid" (l or r) followed by any other consonant. The (a)-series are the vowel grades for those with the nasal-groups (bindan, climban), the majority of Class III; the (b)-series indicates those followed by l-groups (sweltan) and the (c)-series those followed by r-groups (beorgan).
-Prefixes such as ġe in ġelimpan never take the vowel grade. They shall be indicated without boldness: ġelimpan
CLASS I CLASS II CLASS III
[i, a, i, i] [eo, ea, u, o] (a) [i, a, u, u]
(b) [e, ea, u, o]
(c) [eo, ea, u, o]
ridan "to ride" creopan "to creep" bindan "to bind"
scinan "to shine" ġeotan "to pour" climban "to climb"
ġewitan "to go" dreopan "to drip" ġelimpan "to happen"
hrinan "to touch" fleogan "to fly" sweltan "to die"
stigan "to ascend" neotan "to use" beorgan "to protect"
Grade i Grade eo Grade i, e, eo
Infin. ridan creopan bindan
scinan ġeotan climban
ġewitan dreopan ġelimpan
hrinan fleogan sweltan
stigan neotan beorgan
to ridenne to creopenne to bindenne
to scinenne to ġeotenne to climbenne
to ġewitenne to dreopenne to ġelimpenne
to hrinenne to fleogenne to sweltenne
to stigenne to neotenne to beorgenne
Present
iċ "I" ride creope binde
scine ġeote climbe
ġewite dreope ġelimpe
hrine fleoge swelte
stige neote beorge
þu "you" ridest creopest bindest
scinest ġeotest climbest
ġewitest dreopest ġelimpest
hrinest fleogest sweltest
stigest neotest beorgest
he/heo/hit rideð creopeð bindeð
he/she/it scineð ġeoteð climbeð
ġewiteð dreopeð ġelimpeð
hrineð fleogeð swelteð
stigeð neoteð beorgeð
we/ġe/hie ridað creopað bindað
we/ye/they scinað ġeotað climbað
ġewitað dreopað ġelimpað
hrinað fleogað sweltað
stigað neotað beorgað
pr.part. ridende creopende bindende
scinende ġeotende climbende
ġewitende dreopende ġelimpende
hrinende fleogende sweltende
stigende neotende beorgende
Past
Grade a Grade ea Grade a, ea
iċ/ rad creap band
he/heo/hit scan ġeat clamb
gewat dreap ġelamp
hran fleag swealt
stag neat bearg
Grade i Grade u Grade u
þu ride crupe bunde
scine gute clumbe
ġewite drupe ġelumpe
hrine fluge swulte
stige nute burge
we/ġe/hie ridon crupon bundon
scinon guton clumbon
ġewiton drupon ġelumpon
hrinon flugon swulton
stigon nuton burgon
Grade i Grade o Grade u, o
Past.part. riden cropen bunden
scinen goten clumben
ġewiten dropen ġelumpen
hrinen flogen swolten
stigen noten borgen
Optative:
Present
(Grade i) (Grade eo) (Grade i, e, eo)
1, 2, 3 sg. ride creope binde
scine ġeote climbe
ġewite dreope ġelimpe
hrine fleoge swelte
stige neote beorge
1, 2, 3 pl. riden creopen binden
scinen ġeoten climben
ġewiten dreopen ġelimpen
hrinen fleogen swelten
stigen neoten beorgen
Past
(Grade i) (Grade u) (Grade u)
1, 2, 3 sg. ride crupe bunde
scine gute clumbe
ġewite drupe ġelumpe
hrine fluge swulte
stige nute burge
1, 2, 3 pl. riden crupen bunden
scinen guten clumben
ġewiten drupen ġelumpen
hrinen flugen swulten
stigen nuten burgen
Imperative:
(Grade i) (Grade eo) (Grade i, e, eo)
2 sg. rid creop bind
scin ġeot climb
ġewit dreop ġelimp
hrin fleog swelt
stig neot beorg
2 pl. ridað creopað bindað
scinað ġeotað climbað
ġewitað dreopað ġelimpað
hrinað fleogað sweltað
stigað neotað beorgað
Forms like stag, fleag, bearg, often show up with final h as well: stah, fleah, bearh.
Vocabulary
CLASS I CLASS II CLASS III
bidan "to await" beodan "to command" windan "to wind"
cnidan "to beat" creodan "to crowd" grindan "to grind"
glidan "to glide" hreodan "to adorn" hrindan "to push"
slidan "to slide" leodan "to grow" findan "to find"
stridan "to stride" breotan "to break" þindan "to swell"
gnidan "to rub" sceotan "to shoot" swingan "to flog"
beridan "to surround" fleotan "to float" springan "to spring"
belidan "to cover" greotan "to weep" clingan "to shrink"
bitan "to bite" hleotan "to cast lots" singan "to sing"
scitan "to defecate" spreotan"to sprout" stingan "to sting"
slitan "to slit" þeotan "to howl" þringan "to throng"
flitan "to dispute" aþreotan"to tire of" wringan "to wring"
wlitan "to gaze" cleofan "to cleave" stincan "to stink"
hnitan "to knock" dreogan "to endure" slincan "to slink"
þwitan "to hew" leogan "to tell lies" crincan "to fall"
writan "to write" smeocan "to smoke" scrincan "to shrink"
bescitan"to befoul" reocan "to smoke" swincan "to swink"
besmitan"to defile" breowan "to brew" drincan "to drink"
ætwitan "to reproach" ceowan "to chew" acwincan "to vanish"
drifan "to drive" hreowan "to rue" sinnan "to meditate"
scrifan "to shrive" geopan "to receive" rinnan "to run"
clifan "to stick" brinnan "to burn"
swifan "to sweep" *(2)seoþan "to seethe" winnan "to fight"
belifan "to remain" linnan "to cease"
toslifan"to split" *(3)freosan "to freeze" onginnan "to begin"
gripan "to seize" ċeosan "to choose" spinnan "to spin"
nipan "to darken" dreosan "to fall" hlimman "to resound"
ripan "to reap" forleosan "to lose" swimman "to swim"
strican "to stroke" hreosan "to fall" crimman "to cram"
swican "to abandan" rimpan "to wrinkle"
blican "to shine" *(4)brucan "to enjoy" helpan "to help"
sican "to sigh" dufan "to dive" delfan "to dig"
snican "to crawl" scufan "to shove" meltan "to melt"
hnigan "to incline" hrutan "to snore" swelgan "to swallow"
migan "to make water" lutan "to bow" belgan "to swell angrily"
sigan "to sink" slupan "to slip" swellan "to swell"
figan "to parch" supan "to sup" bellan "to bellow"
cinan "to crack" bugan "to bow" melcan "to milk"
ġinan "to yawn" smugan "to creep" beteldan "to cover"
þwinan "to grow" strudan "to rob"
dwinan "to dwindle" sucan "to suck" (5)* ġiellan "to yell"
acwinan "to diminish" lucan "to lock" ġielpan "to boast"
ġerisan "to befit" ġieldan "to yield"
risan "to rise" *(11)teon "to draw"
spiwan "to spew" fleon "to flee" smeortan "to smart"
miþan "to avoid" sweorfan "to polish"
wriþan "to twist" ċeorfan "to carve"
sceorfan "to gnaw"
(1)*liþan "to go" hweorfan "to turn"
sniþan "to cut" steorfan "to die"
scriþan "to glide" deorfan "to labour"
sceorpan "to scrape"
(11)*leon "to lend" weorpan "to throw"
teon "to accuse" sweorcan "to darken"
seon "to strain" beorcan "to bark"
wreon "to cover" georran "to chatter"
þeon "to thrive'
(6)* feolan "to penetrate"
(7)* weorþan "to become"
(8)* feohtan "to fight"
abreoþan "to perish"
aseolcan "to languish"
(9)* breġdan "to brandish"
streġdan "to strew"
berstan "to burst"
þerscan "to thresh"
friġnan "to ask"
spurnan "to spurn"
murnan "to mourn"
(10)*iernan "to run"
biernan "to burn"
(11)*þeon "to thrive
The numbered 1-11 in the vocabulary are unique groups/words that show some minor
but important differences from the normal characteristics the class each is in.
These shall be looked at closely in the later posts.
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41
posted
2005-11-26
12:24 PM
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Strong Verbs (cont'd)
Classes IV, V, VI
CLASS IV CLASS V CLASS VI
[e, æ, æ, o] [e, æ, æ, e] [a, o, o, a]
beran "to bear" metan "to measure" faran "to go"
þweran "to stir" sprecan "to speak" calan "to be cold"
helan "to conceal" wegan "to carry" galan "to sing"
cwelan "to die" swefan "to sleep" wacan "to awake"
stelan "to steal" cnedan "to kneed"" spanan "to allure"
Grade e Grade e Grade a
Infin. beran metan faran
þweran sprecan calan
helan wegan galan
cwelan swefan wacan
stelan cnedan spanan
to berenne to metenne to farenne
to þwerenne to sprecenne to calenne
to helenne to wegenne to galenne
to cwelenne to swefenne to wacenne
to stelenne to cnedenne to spanenne
Present
ic "I" bere mete fare
þwere sprece cale
hele wege gale
cwele swefe wace
stele cnede spane
þu "you" berest metest farest
þwerest sprecest calest
helest wegest galest
cwelest swefest wacest
stelest cnedest spanest
he/heo/hit bereð meteð fareð
he/she/it þwereð spreceð caleð
heleð wegeð galeð
cweleð swefeð waceð
steleð cnedeð spaneð
we/ge/hie berað metað farað
we/ye/they þwerað sprecað calað
helað wegað galað
cwelað swefað wacað
stelað cnedað spanað
pr.part. berende metende farende
þwerende sprecende calende
helende wegende galende
cwelende swefende wacende
stelende cnedende spanende
Past
Grade æ Grade æ Grade o
ic/ bær mæt for
he/heo/hit þwær spræc col
hæl wæg gol
cwæl swæf woc
stæl cnæd spon
Grade æ Grade æ Grade o
þu bære mæte fore
þwære spræce cole
hæle wæge gole
cwæle swæfe woce
stæle cnæde spone
we/ge/hie bæron mæton foron
þwæron spræcon colon
hælon wægon golon
cwælon swæfon wocon
stælon cnædon sponon
Grade o Grade e Grade a
Past.part. boren meten faren
þworen sprecen calen
holen wegen galen
cwolen swefen wacen
stolen cneden spanen
Optative:
Present
(Grade e) (Grade e) (Grade a)
1, 2, 3 sg. bere mete fare
þwere sprece cale
hele wege gale
cwele swefe wace
stele cnede spane
1, 2, 3 pl. beren meten faren
þweren sprecen calen
helen wegen galen
cwelen swefen wacen
stelen cneden spanen
Past
(Grade æ) (Grade æ) (Grade o)
1, 2, 3 sg. bære mæte fore
þwære spræce cole
hæle wæge gole
cwæle swæfe woce
stæle cnæde spone
1, 2, 3 pl. bæren mæten foren
þwæren spræcen colen
hælen wægen golen
cwælen swæfen wocen
stælen cnæden sponen
Imperative:
(Grade e) (Grade e) (Grade a)
2 sg. ber met far
þwer sprec cal
hel weg gal
cwel swef wac
stel cned span
2 pl. berað metað farað
þwerað sprecað calað
helað wegað galað
cwelað swefað wacað
stelað cnedað spanað
Vocabulary
CLASS IV CLASS V CLASS VI
teran "to tear" screpan "to scrape" alan "to grow"
tredan "to tread" bacan "to bake"
* niman "to take" wefan "to weave" grafan "to dig"
cuman "to come" specan "to speak" hladan "to lade"
wrecan "to avenge" sacan "to strive"
* scieran "to shear" lesan "to collect" wadan "to go"
ġenesan "to be saved" gnagan "to gnaw"
* brecan "to break" dragan "to draw"
* ġiefan "to give" wascan "to wash"
forġietan "to forget" scacan "to shake"
standan "to stand"
* etan "to eat"
fretan "to devour" * slean "to strike"
flean "to flay"
* cweþan "to say" lean "to blame"
wesan "to be" þwean "to wash"
* seon "to see" * hebban "to raise"
pleon "to risk" hliehan "to laugh"
sceþþan "to scathe"
* biddan "to pray" scieppan "to shape"
licgan "to lie down" stæppan "to stop"
sittan "to sit" swerian "to swear"
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42
posted
2005-11-26
12:25 PM
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Syncopation and Vowel Shift
It is important to note the second and third person present singular are often syncopated,
so that instead of berest, bereð, we often find birst, birð. The change of vowel is understood
from the fact their inflexions were originally -ist, -ið. The i influenced the word's vowel,
made it change, and then disappeared, as in mann/menn.
The vowel change is fairly predictable. Below are examples.
The vowels shift toward the letter i
i <__ y <__ u u becomes y: brucan ____> brycst, brycð
| o becomes e: growan _____> grewst, grewð
/|\ a becomes æ: grafan _____> græfst, græfð
| e becomes i: helpan _____> hilpst, hilpð
e <_______ o
| eo becomes ie: creopan ____> criepst, criepð
/|\ ea becomes ie: feallan _____> fielst, fielð
|
æ <_______ a
a + n/m becomes e: standan ____> stentst, stent
One expects æ ____> e as well. Indeed this shows up in Old English,
in such correspondences as: sæt "sat" and settan "to set", læġ "lay" and lecgan "to lay".
In the strong verbs though in the few places an æ shows up in present tense it stays
the same in the second and third persons singular: as in slæpst, slæpð.
Consonants
In these syncopated forms, the following consonant changes take place as well:
Followed by -st:
d + st become tst: glidan _____> glitst "glidest"
þ/ð + st become tst or st: sniþan _____> snitst "cuttest"
cweþan _____> cwist "sayest"
s + st become st: ċeosan _____> ċiest "choosest"
Followed by -ð (or þ):
d + ð become tt/t: glidan _____> glitt/glit "glideth"
t + ð become tt/t: writan _____> writt/writ "writeth"
ð + ð become ðð/ð: cweðan ____> cwiðð/cwið "sayeth"
s + ð become st: ċeosan _____> ċiest "choseth"
The syncopated forms take these changes. But the unsyncopated forms
for the most part forgo them.
* Originally there was no -t in the inflexion -st. In english, however, the second person pronoun þu "thou"
was often attatched to the end of the word. The þ of þu gradually became one with the inflexion, and
then became t, making -st. Otherwise the -s corresponds with the latin -s, as as in amas "(thou) lovest"
The third person-ð, (-th) is cognate with the latin inflexion -t as in amat "(he/she/it) loveth"
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43
posted
2005-11-26
12:27 PM
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Verb Table
The next verbs are set into tables that follow the outline given below.
It is helpful in showing all the verbforms at once and which go under
each grade.
(infinitive 1), (infinitive 2)
(present participle)
Present | Past
|
|
Grade 1 | Grade 2 | Grade 3 | Grade 4
__________________|____________|__________________|____________
| | |
(1 sg) | (1, 3, sg) | (2 sg) | (past part.)
(2 sg) | | |
(3 sg) | | (1, 2, 3 pl) |
(1, 2, 3 pl) | | |
| | (1, 2, 3 sg opt) |
(1, 2, 3 sg opt.) | | (1, 2, 3 pl opt) |
(1, 2, 3 pl opt.) | | |
| | |
(2 sg imp.) | | |
(2 pl imp.) | | |
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Essorant
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44
posted
2005-11-26
12:27 PM
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Strong Verbs (cont'd)
Class VII
Class VII is the final class, and has some mixed vowels. The most consistent vowels are in the second and third grades that are always either e or eo. Therefore they are set in two groups: e-verbs and eo-verbs.
Two good points to remember are:
- Whatever vowel is in the first grade shall always be in the fourth grade as well.
- Whatever vowel is in the second grade (e or eo) shall always be in the third grade as well.
e-verbs eo-verbs
Hatan gangan
hatan, to hatenne "to call" gangan, to gangenne "to go"
hatende "calling" gangende "going"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2______3______4__. .__1____|__2______ __3_______4___.
| | | | | |
hate | het | hete | haten gange | geong | geonge | gangen
hatest | | heton | gangest | | geongon |
hateð | | | gangeð | | |
hatað | | hete | gangað | | geonge |
| | heten | | | geongen |
hate | | | gange | | |
haten | | | gangen | | |
| | | | | |
hat | | | gang | | |
hatað | | | gangað | | |
syncopated forms: hætst, hætt/hæt syncopated forms: gengst, gengð
Other e-verbs: Other eo-verbs:
lacan "to play" bannan "to summon" blawan "to blow"
scadan "to seperate" spannan "to join" cnawan "to know"
lætan "to let" weaxan "to grow" crawan "to crow"
rædan "to advise" weallan "to boil" sawan "to sow"
ondrædan "to dread" sealtan "to salt" swapan "to sweep"
slæpan "to sleep" wealdan "to rule" þrawan "to turn"
blandan "to mix" wealcan "to roll" wawan "to blow"
stealdan "to have" beatan "to beat"
* fon "to seize" healdan "to hold" hleapan "to leap"
hon "to hang" fealdan "to fold" heawan "to hew"
wrotan "to root up" glowan "to glow"
blotan "to sacrifice" flowan "to flow"
blowan "to bloom" growan "to grow"
hropan "to shout" hlowan "to low"
hwopan "to threaten" rowan "to row"
spowan "to succeed" wepan "to weep"
flocan "to clap" swogan "to sough"
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45
posted
2005-11-26
12:47 PM
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Specified Strong Verbs
In the vocabularies for Class I-VII the verbs marked with * are some verbs that need specification about unique differences they show, that other verbs of their class do not.
The specified strong verbs are set into the following groups:
(1) þ ____> d
The first group includes 6 verbs.
These verbs have a þ in the First and Second Grades
that shows up as d in the third and fourth Grades.
Other than that each verb behaves exactly
as any other verb in the class it comes from.
The class a verb comes from is indicated
in the brackets.
liþan (I) sniþan (I)
liþan, to liþenne "to go" sniþan, to sniþenne "to cut"
liþende "going" sniþende "cutting"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2______3______4__. .__1____|__2______ 3_______4___.
| | | | | |
liþe | laþ | lide | liden sniþe | snaþ | snide | sniden
liþest | | lidon | sniþest | | snidon |
liþeð | | | sniþeð | | |
liþað | | lide | sniþað | | snide |
| | liden | | | sniden |
liþe | | | sniþe | | |
liþen | | | sniþen | | |
| | | | | |
liþ | | | sniþ | | |
liþað | | | sniþað | | |
scriþan (I) seoþan (II)
scriþan, to scriþenne "to glide" seoþan, to seoþenne "to seethe"
scriþende "gliding" seoþende "seething"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
.__1____ |__2________3_______4___. .__1____|__2______ 3______4___.
| | | | | |
scriþe | scraþ | snide | sniden seoþe | seaþ | sude | soden
scriþest | | snidon | seoþest | | sudon |
scriþeð | | | seoþeð | | |
scriþað | | snide | seoþað | | sude |
| | sniden | | | suden |
scriþe | | | seoþe | | |
scriþen | | | seoþen | | |
| | | | | |
scriþ | | | seoþ | | |
scriþað | | | seoþað | | |
weorþan (III) cweþan (V)
weorþan, to weorþenne "to become" cweþan, to cweþenne "to say"
weorþende "becoming" cweþende "saying"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
.__1____ |__2________3_______4___. .__1____|__2______ 3______4___.
| | | | | |
weorþe | wearþ | wurde | worden cweþe | cwæþ | cwæde | cweden
weorþest | | wurdon | cweþest | | cwædon |
weorþeð | | | cweþeð | | |
weorþað | | wurde | cweþað | | cwæde |
| | wurden | | | cwæden |
weorþe | | | cweþe | | |
weorþen | | | cweþen | | |
| | | | | |
weorþ | | | cweþ | | |
weorþað | | | cweþað | | |
(2) s ____> r
The second group includes 6 verbs.
These verbs have an s in the First and Second Grades
that shows up as an r in the third and fourth Grades.
freosan (II) ceosan (II)
freosan, to freosenne "to freeze" ċeosan, to ċeosenne "to choose"
freosende "freezing" ċeosende "choosing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1_____|___2_______3______4___. .___1____|__2______ 3_______4___.
| | | | | |
freose | freas | frure | froren ċeose | ċeas | cure | coren
freosest | | fruron | ċeosest | | curon |
freoseð | | | ċeoseð | | |
freosað | | frure | ċeosað | | cure |
| | fruren | | | curen |
freose | | | ċeose | | |
freosen | | | ċeosen | | |
| | | | | |
freos | | | ċeos | | |
freosað | | | ċeosað | | |
dreosan (II)
dreosan, to dreosenne "to fall"
dreosende "falling"
Pres. | Past
|
.__1____ |__2________3_______4___.
| | |
dreose | dreas | drure | droren
dreosest | | druron |
dreoseð | | |
dreosað | | drure |
| | druren |
dreose | | |
dreosen | | |
| | |
dreos | | |
dreosað | | |
forleosan (II)
forleosan, to forleosenne "to forlose"
forleosende "forlosing"
Pres. | Past
|
.___1______|____2__________3_________4____.
| | |
forleose | forleas | forlure | forloren
forleosest | | forluron |
forleoseð | | |
forleosað | | forlure |
| | forluren |
forleose | | |
forleosen | | |
| | |
forleos | | |
forleosað | | |
hreosan (II) wesan (V)
hreosan, to hreosenne "to fall" wesan, - "to be"
hreosende "falling" wesende "being"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
.__1____ |__2________3_______4___. .__1____|__2______ 3_____4___.
| | | | | |
hreose | hreas | hrure | hroren _ | wæs | wære |
hreosest | | hruron | _ | | wæron |
hreoseð | | | _ | | |
hreosað | | hrure | _ | | wære |
| | hruren | | | wæren |
hreose | | | - | | |
hreosen | | | - | | |
| | | | | |
hreos | | | wes | | |
hreosað | | | wesað | | |
* The missing forms under wesan "to be"
are made up from other forms: eom "am" eart "art"
is "is" just as in Old English.
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46
posted
2006-05-01
10:16 PM
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Specified Strong Verbs (cont'd)
u instead of eo
This group includes 12 verbs of Class II. Instead of the conventional eo (as in creopan "to creep") that is found in the First Grade of verbs in class II, the following verbs have u: brucan "to enjoy", dufan "to dive", scufan "to shove", hrutan "to snore", lutan "to bow", slupan "to slip", supan "to sup", bugan "to bow" , smugan "to creep", strudan "to rob", sucan "to suck", lucan "to lock" The Second, Third and Fourth Grades of these are exactly the same as the verbs that show up with the eo
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47
posted
2006-05-04
01:44 AM
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Additional i and e.
In the following 7 verbs a special letter i shows up after the "soft" pronunciation of ġ (pronounced like the y in yellow) and sc (pronounced like the sh in sheep) when they were followed by e.
The class a verb comes from is indicated in the brackets.
ġiellan "to yell" (III)
ġielpan "to yelp" (III)
ġieldan "to yield" (III)
ġiefan "to give" (V)
forġietan "to forget" (V)
scieran "to shear" (IV)
scieppan "to shape" (VI)
As well, a special letter e shows up after the "soft" pronunciation of ġ and sc when followed by æ (the æ therewith then shows up as a).
For example, for the Class V verb ġiefan "to give" in Grade æ and Grade æ we find ġeaf, ġeafe, ġeafon, ġeafen instead of ġæf, ġæfe, ġæfon, ġæfen
The additional letters i and e in these words is interpreted as a letter and sound brought forth by the "soft" pronunciation of the letters ġ and sc.
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Essorant
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48
posted
2006-05-07
08:30 PM
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Contracted Verbs
The next strong verbs are different because they originally ended with h. Eventually this h was dropped when they took an inflection beginning with a vowel, and the vowel of the inflection was then contracted with or absorbed into the vowel of the words. Therefore *fleohan became fleon, where the a of the inflection an is merged into eo. When an inflection that didn't begin with a vowel or no inflection was added then the h remained, as the imperative fleoh "flee!" and second and third singular (always with syncopation and i-umlaut): fliehst and fliehð. G instead of h usually shows up in the third and fourth grades. But in the contracted verbs from Classes VI and VII it shows up in the second grade as well.
Class: I II III IV V VI VII
leon fleon þeon (none) seon flean fon
teon teon feon slean hon
seon pleon þwean
wreon lean
þeon
From Class I
leon (I) teon (I)
leon, to leonne "to lend" teon, to teonne "to accuse"
leonde "lending" teonde "accusing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2______3______4__. .__1____|__2________3_______4___.
| | | | | |
leo | lah | lige | ligen teo | tah | tige | tigen
liehst | | ligon | tiehst | | tigon |
liehð | | | tiehð | | |
leoð | | lige | teoð | | tige |
| | ligen | | | tigen |
leo | | | teo | | |
leon | | | teon | | |
| | | | | |
leoh | | | teoh | | |
leoð | | | teoð | | |
seon (I) wreon (I)
seon, to seonne "to strain" wreon, to wreonne "to cover"
seonde "straining" wreonde "covering"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2______3______4__. .__1____|__2________3_______4___.
| | | | | |
seo | sah | sige | sigen wreo | wrah | wrige | wrigen
siehst | | sigon | wriehst | | wrigon |
siehð | | | wriehð | | |
seoð | | sige | wreoð | | wrige |
| | sigen | | | wrigen |
seo | | | wreo | | |
seon | | | wreon | | |
| | | | | |
seoh | | | wreoh | | |
seoð | | | wreoð | | |
þeon (I)
þeon, to þeonne "to thrive"
þeonde "thriving"
Pres. | Past
|
___1___|__2______3______4__.
| | |
þeo | þah | þige | þigen
þiehst | | þigon |
þiehð | | |
þeoð | | þige |
| | þigen |
þeo | | |
þeon | | |
| | |
þeoh | | |
þeoð | | |
From Class II
fleon (II) teon (II)
fleon, to fleonne "to flee" teon, to teonne "to draw"
fleonde "fleeing" teonde "drawing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2________3______4___. .___1___|___2______3_______4___.
| | | | | |
fleo | fleah | fluge | flogen teo | teah | tuge | togen
fliehst| | flugon | tiehst | | tugon |
fliehð | | | tiehð | | |
fleoð | | fluge | teoð | | tuge |
| | flugen | | | tugen |
fleo | | | teo | | |
fleon | | | teon | | |
| | | | | |
fleoh | | | teoh | | |
fleoð | | | teoð | | |
From Class III
þeon also shows up in Class III with some differences.
An original n of this word is preserved in the third
and fourth grades. In the first and second grades though
this n disappeared.
þeon (III)
þeon, to þeonne "to thrive"
þeonde "thriving"
Pres. | Past
|
___1___|__2______3______4__.
| | |
þeo |*þoh | þunge | þungen
þiehst | | þungon |
þiehð | | |
þeoð | | þunge |
| | þungen |
þeo | | |
þeon | | |
| | |
þeoh | | |
þeoð | | |
From Class V
Seon "to see" has w in the third and fourth grades instead of g.
seon (V) feon (V)
seon, to seonne "to see" feon, to feonne "to rejoice"
seonde "seeing" feonde "rejoicing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2______3______4___. .__1____|__2________3_______4___.
| | | | | |
seo | seah | sawe | sewen feo | feah | fæge | fegen
siehst | | sawon | fiehst | | fægon |
siehð | | | fiehð | | |
seoð | | sawe | feoð | | fæge |
| | sawen | | | fægen |
seo | | | feo | | |
seon | | | feon | | |
| | | | | |
seoh | | | feoh | | |
seoð | | | feoð | | |
pleon (V)
pleon, to pleonne "to risk"
pleonde "risking"
Pres. | Past
|
___1____|___2_______3______4__.
| | |
pleo | pleah | plæge | plegen
pliehst | | plægon |
pliehð | | |
pleoð | | plæge |
| | plægen |
pleo | | |
pleon | | |
| | |
pleoh | | |
pleoð | | |
From Class VI
The below verbs usually have g instead of h in the Second grade.
flean (VI) slean (VI)
flean, to fleanne "to flay" slean, to sleanne "to strike"
fleande "flaying" sleande "striking"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2________3______4___. .___1____|___2______3_______4___.
| | | | | |
flea | flog | floge | flagen slea | slog | sloge | slagen
fliehst| | flogon | sliehst | | slogon |
fliehð | | | sliehð | | |
fleað | | floge | sleað | | sloge |
| | flogen | | | slogen |
flea | | | slea | | |
flean | | | slean | | |
| | | | | |
fleah | | | sleah | | |
fleað | | | sleað | | |
þwean (VI) lean (VI)
þwean, to þweanne "to wash" lean, to leanne "to blame"
þweande "washing" leande "blaming"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1___|__2________3______4___. .___1____|___2______3_______4___.
| | | | | |
þwea | þwog | þwoge | þwagen lea | log | loge | lagen
þwiehst| | þwogon | liehst | | logon |
þwiehð | | | liehð | | |
þweað | | þwoge | leað | | loge |
| | þwogen | | | logen |
þwea | | | lea | | |
þwean | | | lean | | |
| | | | | |
þweah | | | leah | | |
þweað | | | leað | | |
From Class VII
In fon "to seize" and hon "to hang" an original n is
preserved in the second, third and fourth grades.
In the first grade though this n disappeared.
fon (VII) hon (VII)
fon, to fonne "to seize" hon, to honne "to hang"
fonde "seizing" honde "hanging"
Pres. | Past Pres | Past
| |
__1___|__2______3_______4__. .__1____|__2________3_______4___.
| | | | | |
fo | feng | fenge | fangen ho | heng | henge | hangen
fehst | | fengon | hehst | | hengon |
fehð | | | hehð | | |
foð | | fenge | hoð | | henge |
| | fengen | | | hengen |
fo | | | ho | | |
fon | | | hon | | |
| | | | | |
foh | | | hoh | | |
foð | | | hoð | | |
* Verbs of Class I sometimes show up with second, third and fourth grades that belong to class II,
Thus wreah beside wrah, þeah beside þah, et cetera.
[This message has been edited by Essorant (05-08-2006 02:18 AM).]
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Essorant
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Posts 4769
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49
posted
2006-05-17
11:18 AM
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Miscellany from Class III
The next verbs are all from Class III and differ in one way or another from the regular pattern.
As we ere said Class III verbs regularly have vowel grades followed by consonant-pairs that begin with a "nasal" (m or n) or "liquid" (l or r).
Below, the verbs breġdan, streġdan, friġnan, and feohtan, however, do not have regular consonant pairs. And berstan, þerscan, murnan, spurnan, iernan and biernan don't have the usual eo (as in beorgan) before an r-group . Aseolcan on the other hand doesn't have the usual e (as in helpan) before an l-group.
Finally feolan (from earlier *feolhan) is just like a "contracted verb".
An h shows up in some forms (as in fielhst) and g in others (as in fulge)
Lengthening
Note also how the vowel is sometimes underlined in some forms of the verb feolon indicating a long sound. Class III verbs don't regularly have any long vowel-grades. But whereever the h (or g in some cases) disappeared from forms of this verb the vowel in response became long/lengthened, further making it differ from other Class III verbs. Along the same behavior, breġdan, streġdan, and friġnan sometimes show up as bredan, stredan, and frinan with long/lengthened vowels after the loss of g throughout their whole conjugations.
breġdan (III) streġdan (III)
breġdan,to breġdenne "to brandish" streġdan,to streġdenne "to strew"
breġdende "brandishing" streġdende "strewing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1_____|__2______3_______4___. .___1_____|___2______3________4___.
| | | | | |
breġde |bræġd| brugde |brogden streġde |stræġd| strugde |strogden
breġdest | | brugdon| streġdest| | strugdon|
breġdeð | | | streġdeð | | |
breġdað | | brugde | streġdað | | strugde |
| | brugden| | | strugden|
breġde | | | streġde | | |
breġden | | | streġden | | |
| | | | | |
breġd | | | streġd | | |
breġdað | | | streġdað | | |
syncopated forms: briġtst, briġtt/briġt syncopated forms: striġtst, striġtt/strigt
berstan (III) þerscan (III)
berstan, to berstenne "to burst" þerscan, to þerscenne "to thresh"
berstende "bursting" þerscende "threshing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1_____|___2_______3______4___. .___1_____|___2______3_______4___.
| | | | | |
berste |bærst | burste | borsten þersce |þærsc | þursce | þorscen
berstest | | burston| þerscest | | þurscon |
bersteð | | | þersceð | | |
berstað | | burste | þerscað | | þursce |
| | bursten| | | þurscen |
berste | | | þersce | | |
bersten | | | þerscen | | |
| | | | | |
berst | | | þersc | | |
berstað | | | þerscað | | |
syncopated forms: birst, birstt/birst syncopated forms: þirscst, þirscð
friġnan (III) aseolcan (III)
friġnan,to friġnenne "to ask" aseolcan,to aseolcenne "to languish"
friġnende "asking" aseolcende "languishing"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1_____|__2______3_______4___. .___1_____|___2______3________4___.
| | | | | |
friġne |fræġn| frugne |frugnen aseolce |asealc| asulce |asolcen
friġnest | | frugnon| aseolcest| | asulcon |
friġneð | | | aseolceð | | |
friġnað | | frugne | aseolcað | | asulce |
| | frugnen| | | asulcen |
friġne | | | aseolce | | |
friġnen | | | aseolcen | | |
| | | | | |
friġn | | | aseolc | | |
friġnað | | | aseolcað | | |
syncopated forms: friġnst, friġnð syncopated forms: asielcst, asielcð
murnan (III) spurnan (III)
murnan,to murnenne "to mourn" spurnan,to spurnenne "to spurn"
murnende "mourning" spurnende "spurning"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1____|__2______3_______4___. .___1_____|___2______3________4___.
| | | | | |
murne |mearn| murne |mornen spurne |spearn| spurne |spornen
murnest | | murnon | spurnest | | spurnon |
murneð | | | spurneð | | |
murnað | | murne | spurnað | | spurne |
| | murnen | | | spurnen |
murne | | | spurne | | |
murnen | | | spurnen | | |
| | | | | |
murn | | | spurn | | |
murnað | | | spurnað | | |
syncopated forms: myrnst, myrnð syncopated forms: spyrnst, spyrnð
feohtan (III) feolan (III)
feohtan,to feohtenne "to fight" feolan,to feolenne "to reach"
feohtende "fighting" feolende "reaching"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1_____|__2______3_______4___. .___1_____|___2______3________4___.
| | | | | |
feohte |feaht| fuhte |fohten feole |fealh | fulge |folgen
feohtest | | fuhton | fielhst | | fulgon |
feohteð | | | fielhð | | |
feohtað | | fuhte | feolað | | fulge |
| | fuhten | | | fulgen |
feohte | | | feole | | |
feohten | | | feolen | | |
| | | | | |
feoht | | | feol | | |
feohtað | | | feolað | | |
syncopated forms: fiehtst, fiehtt/fieht
iernan (III) biernan (III)
iernan,to iernenne "to run" biernan,to biernenne "to burn"
iernende "running" biernende "burning"
Pres. | Past Pres. | Past
| |
___1____|__2______3_______4___. .___1_____|___2______3________4___.
| | | | | |
ierne |arn | urne |urnen bierne |barn | burne |burnen
iernest | | urnon | biernest | | burnon |
ierneð | | | bierneð | | |
iernað | | urne | biernað | | burne |
| | urnen | | | burnen |
ierne | | | bierne | | |
iernen | | | biernen | | |
| | | | | |
iern | | | biern | | |
iernað | | | biernað | | |
syncopated forms: iernst, iernð syncopated forms: biernst, biernð
* Feolan also shows up with vowel-grades that make it look like a Class IV verb: felan, fæl, fælon, folen.
Most of the vowels have lengthening from the loss of h or g.
Metathesis
Linguistics. Transposition within a word of letters, sounds, or syllables, as in the change from Old English brid to modern English bird or in the confusion of modren for modern. [from dictionary.com]
iernan, biernan, berstan and þerscan are among some words that show metathesis with the letter r and correspond to other forms without metathesis:
Metathesis after the vowel:
græs/gærs "grass"
frost/forst "frost"
wrænna/wærna "wren"
hræn/hærn "wave"
(0ld Saxon hros)/hors "horse"
frosc/forsc "frog"
brastlian/bærstlian "crackle"
brinnan/biernan "to burn"
þrescan/þerscan "thresh"
rinnan/iernan "to run"
þridda/þirdda "third
brid/(later bird) "bird"
Metathesis before the vowel:
forht/froht "frightened"
beorht/breaht "bright"
worhte/wrohte "wrought"
berstan/(Old Saxon brestan "burst")
fersc/ (later fresh)
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